l+t 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


THK  SLOSS  COLLECTION  OF  THE  SEMITIC  LIBRARY 
OK  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Accession  No. 


GIFT  OF 

LOUIS  SLOSS. 

FEBRUARY,  1897. 

Class  No. 


— / 
COLL. 


THE    JEWISH 


S 


FIRST    PART: 

Post     Biblical     History. 

SECOND    PART: 
Explanation     of    Mosaic    Commands. 

BY 

J,  MENDES  DE  SOLLA,  DR,  TH. 

[^  Of  THE    ]       AL 

(  WIIYERSITY   ) 

Of 


NEW  YORK: 
HEBREW     BOOK     UNION 

1880. 

[ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED.] 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1880,  by 

J.  MENDES  DE  SOLLA,  DR.  TH., 
in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


STEAM    PRESS   OF 

H.  O.  A.  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL, 
76TH  ST.,  NEAR  THIRD  AVE. 


PREFACE. 


The  author  of  Ecclesiastes,  already  in  his  time,  when  no 
printing  and  little  writing  was  known,  observed  that  "  there 
is  no  end  to  the  making  of  many  books."  It  is  no  wonder, 
therefore,  that  in  our  days,  when  book-making  has  become 
so  universal,  any  new  production  issued  from  the  press  is 
apt'to  be  received  with  the  remark  that  we  have  already  too 
many  books.  But  though  the  Preacher  was  gifted  with  wis- 
dom, more  than  all  his  contemporaries,  knowledge  was  very 
limited  then,  and  no  intelligent  person  will  deny  that  with 
the  general  spread  of  learning  the  demand  for  new  books 
must  keep  pace.  The  method  of  imparting  knowledge  is 
from  time  to  time  changed,  and  we  believe  improved,  and 
new  mediums  of  instruction  to  correspond  with  the  new 
methods  are  naturally  required.  The  author  of  this  volume, 
therefore,  deems  it  unnecessary  to  say  anything  further  by 
way  of  apology  for  the  appearance  of  this  new  production 
of  his  labors,  feeling  as  he  does  the  earnest  conviction  that 
a  book  such  as  he  now  ventures  to  lay  before  the  public  is 
much  needed  to  aid  our  scholars  in  the  study  of  History 
and  Theology. 

As  to  the  first  part,  it  is  certainly  desirable  that  every  Jew 
should  have  at  least  a  superficial  knowledge  of  the  history 
of  his  nation ;  that  he  should  have  vividly  before  him  at  least 
the  principal  links  in  the  long  chain  of  events  since  the 
exodus  from  Egypt,  down  to  our  own  days.  As  not  every 
one  can  devote  sufficient  time  to  the  regular  study  of  history, 

24 


IV 


this  SYNOPSIS  may  prove  both  instructive  and  pleasant  to 
the  earnest -inquirer  who  desires  to  refresh  his  memory,  or 
acquire  some  new  information. 

Our  national  history  is  a  subject  of  honest  pride  to  us; 
the  study  of  it  is  calculated  to  inspire  us  with  courage  and 
fortitude  in  persevering  in  our  efforts  to  uphold  the  proud 
name  of  our  ancestral  nobility;  a  nobility  not  resting  on 
vain  aristocracy  or  empty  titles,  but  on  the  sterling  qualities 
of  endurance  for  the  sake  of  principle;  of  sacrificing  worldly 
interest  to  the  conviction  of  doing  right;  of  struggling  and 
persevering^p^the  path  of  duty,  when  deviating  from  the 
same  would^bring  honor,  fame,  and  wealth.  And  it  is  our 
post-biblical  "history  especially — I  might  say  exclusively — 
which  tends  to  inspire  us  with  these  exalted  sentiments;  it 
is  the  history  of  our  martyrdom  through  many  ages,  not  of 
the  time  ''when  Israel  dwelt  safely  every  man  under  his 
vine  and  under  his  fig-tree,"  /which  teaches  us  what  man  is  ; 
capable  of  enduring  and  accomplishing,  if  he  has  the  will 
and  the  firmness  to  walk  steadily  on  the  right  courseA  That 
great  lesson  our  rising  generation  stands  much  in  need  of 
learning,  and  that  this  humble  production  may  serve  as  a 
step  towards  promoting  this  end  is  the  writer's  earnest  de- 
sire. 

The  second  part  of  this  book  is  of  still  greater  import- 
ance, inasmuch  as  it  concerns  the  practical  part  of  our  reli- 
gion. ^History  is  a  great  teacher  of  morals,  but  we  may 
learn  ethics  likewise  from  various  other  sources.  A  direct 
and  positive  information,  however,  of  what  we  ought  to  do 
or  abstain  from  doing,  and  the  reasons  why  we  should  do 
this  and  avoid  doing  that,  ,is  of  far  more  urgent  necessity, 
particularly  to  the  young.  In  the  present  enlightened  age, 
we  cannot  satisfy  ourselves  with  the  specious  reasoning  that 
we  do  such  or  so  because  we  were  told  to  do  so  by  those 
wiser  and  better  than  ourselves  ;^that  we  saw  our  fathers  do 


so  before  us,  and  that  we  cannot  be  wrong  in  following  in 
their  steps.  ,^We  want  a  reason,  and  a  valid  reason,  for  what 
we  are  required  to  do;'  and  unless  our  religious  perform- 
ances are  based  on  the  consciousness  that  we  are  doing 
what  is  right  and  useful,  such  performances  are  vain  and 
valueless.  The  second  part  of  this  book,  then,  is  intended 
to  give  an  insight,  at  least,  into  the  general  intention  and 
tendency  of  the  Mosaic  Laws,  in  accordance  with  the  views 
of  the  great  Maimonides,  as  laid  down  in  his  Moreh  Nebu- 
chim,!and  to  explain  such  laws  especially  as  appear  to  us 
incomprehensible  because  not  reconcilable  with  our  present 
mode  of  thinking.  In  order,  therefore,  that  those  who  con- 
tinue, as  far  as  practicable,  the  strict  observance  of  the 
Mosaic  laws,  may  be  better  informed  as  to  the  origin  of 
these  institutions;  and  that  those  who  do  not  adhere  to 
them  as  a  whole  may  know  the  reasons  why  some  are  re- 
tained and  others  discarded,  at  is  important  for  both  to  be 
enlightened  in  regard  to  that  which  constitutes  the  basis  of 
their  faith  and  their  acts  of  devotion.  This  information 
the  second  part  of  the  book  is  intended,  in  a  measure,  to 
supply. 

That,  in  the  compilation  of  this  book,  I  have  made  use  of 
various  works  in  English  and  other  languages  need  not  be 
said,  for  no  writer  of  history  can  give  his  readers  but  what 
he  finds  in  the  works  of  his  predecessors;  but  I  here  can- 
didly state  that  I  have  not  hesitated,  in  many  instances,  to 
copy,  nearly  verbatim,  or  to  translate  from  other  works  even 
to  the  extent  of  whole  paragraphs.  My  reason  for  not  al- 
ways crediting  the  author  I  copied  or  translated  is,  that  I 
have  in  most  cases  abbreviated,  added,  or  changed,  and  to 
particularize  each  line  or  phrase,  mixed  up  as  it  is  with  my 
own  words,  would  produce  such  a  confusion  of  inverted 
commas,  spaces,  and  dottings,  as  to  disfigure  the  typograph- 
ical appearance  of  the  book,  and  be  a  source  of  annoyance 


VI 

to  the  reader.  I  have  done  as  Moliere  said  :  "  Je  prends 
mon  bien  oti  je  le  trouve."  I  make  this  general  statement 
to  exculpate  myself  of  the  crime  of  plagiarism. 

J.  M.  DE  SOLLA,  DR.TH. 
CURACAO,  W.  I.,  August,  1879. 


FIRST    PART. 

/ 

A     SYNOPSIS     OF 

Post- Biblical  Jewish  History, 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 


FIRST    PERIOD. 

PAGE 

The  nation  divided  into  two  kingdoms,  I 

Termination  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  of  Judah,    .  .  2 

Jews'in  Babylon.     Rebuilding  of  the  Temple.     Ezra  and  Nehe- 

miah,  .......  3 

The  Samaritan  and  the  Egyptian  Temples.     Jews  at  Alexandria,         5 
Jews  under  Persian  and  Grecian  Rule.     The  Maccabees,         .  7 

The  Sadducees,  Essenes,  Pharisees,  and  Karaites,  .  .         8 

The  Asmonean  dynasty,      ^  .  .  .  .  10 

Pompey's  attack  on  the  Temple.    Jews  in  contact  with  Romans 

and  Idumeans,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .II 

Herod  as  Governor.     The  last  of  the  Asmoneans,         .  .  12 

Herod's  reign,  .......       13 

Herod's  reign,  continued.     His  end,  16 

Archelaus,          .  .  .  .  .  .18 

Judea  a  Roman  Province.     The  Sanhedrin,       .  .  .  19 

Agrippa  I.     Queen  Helena,  .  .  .  .  .20 

Caligula's  reign.  Massacre  at  Alexandria,  ...  21 
Troubles  in  Babylon.  Assinai  and  Anilai,  .  .  .23 
Agrippa  II.  The  Zealots.  Internal  disturbances,  .  .  25 
Revolt  of  the  Jews  against  Rome.  Cestius  defeated,  .  .27 
Vespasian  sent  to  subdue  the  Judeans.  Galilee  conquered,  .  28 
Titus'  advance  on  Jerusalem.  Description  of  the  city  and  Tem- 
ple,    30 

The  attack  on  Jerusalem.     Horrible  scenes  in  the  city.     Final 

destruction,         .......       33 

Biography  of  Philo  and  Josephus,  ....  36 


SECOND    PERIOD. 

PAGE 

Revival  of  the   Jews  under  rabbinical   authority.     They   revolt 

again,  and  are  subdued  by  Hadrian,     .  .       39 

Barcochab's  Messiahship,  .  41 

The  Patriarchate.     The  Mishnah,    .  .       42 

Constantine  adopts  Christianity,  .  .  43 

Origin  of  the  Talmud,  .  -44 

The  reign  of  Justinian.    Taking  of  Jerusalem  by  Chosroes,    Jews 

controlling  the  slave-trade,  ....  45 

The  rule  of  Mohammed.     Influence  of  Islamism  upon  the  Jews,          47 
The  kingdom  of  Khozar,  .....  49 

Dominion  of  the   Patriarch  of  the  West,  and  the  Prince  of  the 

Captivity,  .......       50 

The  Jews  in  Spain.     Moses  in  sackcloth,  ...  52 

Spanish  Jewish  scholars  and  statesmen,       .  .  .  -54 

Aben  Ezra  and  Maimonides,       .....  59 

Jews  in  Arabia,  India,  and  China,     .  .  .  .  .63 

Jews  in  Africa,     .  .  .  .  .  .  65 

Jews  in  Italy,  .  70 

Jews  in  France,  .....  72 

Jews  in  Germany,      .  .  .  .  .  .  -77 

The  Crusades,      .......  84 

Jews  in  England.     Jewish  wealth  and  usury,          .  .  .89 

The  Inquisition,  .....  96 

New  settlements  of  the  Spanish  Exiles.      ....     io3 

THIRD  PERIOD. 
The  Reformation,  ......  106 

Jews  in  the  Sclavonian  Countries,    .  .  .  .  .no 

Shabbetai  Zebi  and  Joseph  Frank,          .  .  .  .115 

Jews  in  the  Netherlands,      .  .  .  .  .  .118 

Eminent  scholars  of  Holland,     .  .  .  .  .126 

Re-establishment  of  Jews  in  England,          ....     133 

Jews  in  France  and  Italy,  after  the  middle-ages,  .  .  137 

Jews  in  the  East.     The  Damascus  blood-accusations,        .  .     146 

Jews  in  Germany,  Austria,  and  the  Sclavonian  countries  in  the 

latter  ages,  .  .  .  .  .  .  150 

Moses  Mendelssohn    and    his    cotemporaries.      Modern   Jewish 

Reform,  .......     156 

Jews  in  America,  ....  165 


SYNOPSIS 


OF 


POST-BIBLICAL  JEWISH  HISTORY, 


FIRST  PERIOD. 


FROM  THE  TERMINATION  OF  THE  KINGDOM 
0,F  ISRAEL  TO  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE 
SECOND  TEMPLE. 

THE  NATION  DIVIDED  INTO  Two  KINGDOMS. 

The  object  of  this  book  being  to  teach  the  post-biblical 
history  of  our  nation,  it  might  be  thought  unnecessary  to 
repeat  anything  stated  in  the  Bible.  But  as  some  of  my 
young  readers  may  not  have  the  later  events  recounted  in 
the  sacred  book  clearly  before  their  mind,  I  shall  begin  by 
holding  up  before  them  a  few  of  the  principal  points  of  our 
biblical  history,  and  by  so  doing  form  a  link  between  the 
biblical  and  post-biblical. 

They  will  remember  perhaps  that,  after  the  death  of  Solo- 
mon, the  Jewish  nation  was  divided  into  two  separate  king- 
doms, under  different  rulers  ;  one  part  being  called  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  under  Rehoboam,  and  the  other  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  under  Jeroboam.  The  kingdom  of  Rehoboam 
consisted  of  the  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  and 
they  held  Jerusalem  as  their  capital ;  while  Jeroboam  ruled 
over  the  remaining  ten  tribes,  whose  capital  was  first  at 
Shechem,  but  finally  and  permanently  Samaria. 

Counting  from  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  against  Reho- 


boatn,  there  had  been  nineteen  kings  over  the  people  of  Ju- 
dah,  besides  queen  Athalia ;  and  nineteen  kings  over  the 
people  of  Israel.  Most  of  the  rulers  of  both  kingdoms  were 
bad,  and  some  extremely  wicked  ;  yet  among  the  kings  of 
Judah  there  were  more  God-fearing  men  than  among  the 
others,  and  therefore  the  kingdom  of  Judah  lasted  longer 
than  that  of  Israel. 

TERMINATION  OF  THE  KINGDOMS  OF  ISRAEL 
AND  JUDAH. 

Now  the  termination  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  happened 
in  this  way.  When  Hosea,  who  was  the  last  king  of  that 
portion  of  Israel,  had  ruled  about  six  years,  Shalmaneser, 
king  of  Assyria,  declared  war  against  him,  and  made  him  his 
tributary.  They  then  remained  in  peace  for  some  time  ;  but 
Hosea  would  not  quietly  submit  to  the  rule  of  another  king 
over  him,  and  formed  a  conspiracy  against  his  superior  ; 
whereupon  Shalmaneser  rose  against  Samaria,  and  held  it  in 
siege  for  three  years,  and  in  the  ninth  year  of  Hosea's  reign 
took  possession  of  the  country,  made  Hosea  a  prisoner, 
and  carried  the  Israelites  as  captives  to  a  distant  part  of  his 
dominions;  and  this  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
which  had  lasted  215  years.  This  portion  of  the  descen- 
dants of  Abraham  are  known  by  the  name  of  the  Lost  Ten 
Tribes. 

The  kingdom  of  Judah  still  continued  for  about  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years  after  the  independence  of  the  ten 
tribes  had  ceased,  but  they  were  frequently  harassed  by  the 
surrounding  powers.  Jehoahaz,  one  of  their  kings,  was  de- 
feated by  an  Egyptian  king,  and  carried  captive  to  Babylon, 
where  he  died.  Then  his  brother  Jehoiakim  was  appointed 
in  his  stead,  but  held  tributary  to  the  king  of  Egypt.  Shortly 
afterwards,  Nebuchadnezzar  sent  an  army  to  invade  Judea, 
took  Jerusalem,  put  Jehoiakim  in  chains,  and  led  a  great 
many  Israelites  to  Babylon,  and  from  that  time  we  begin  to 


count  the  Babylonian  captivity.  A  small  portion  of  the 
Jews  remained  yet  in  Palestine  and  held  possession  of  the 
Temple,  and  Jehoiachin,  son  of  Jehoiakim,  was  appointed  to 
rule  instead  of  his  father.  Scarcely,  however,  had  he  reign- 
ed three  months  when  Nebuchadezzar  himself,  at  the  head 
of  his  army,  took  possession  of  Jerusalem,  plundered  the 
Temple  of  all  the  golden  vessels  which  Solomon  had  made, 
and  led  the  king  Jehoiachin  to  Babylon,  where  he  remained 
in  prison  for  thirty-seven  years. 

The  final  doom  of  Judah  was  now  fast  approaching. 
Zedekiah,  who  was  its  last  king,  had  made  a  treaty  with 
Nebuchadnezzar  to  be  subject  to  his  rule,  but  in  the  ninth 
year  of  his  reign  he  entered  into  a  league  with  the  king  of 
Egypt  and  revolted  against  his  superior.  Now  came  a  third 
invasion  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans,  who  held  it  in  siege 
tor  eighteen  months;  and  in  the  eleventh  year  of  Zedekiah, 
on  the  loth  of  Tebet  3338  A.M.,  Nebuchadnezzar  took 
Jerusalem  by  storm,  and  on  the  ninth  of  Ab  of  the  same 
year,  the  first  Temple,  which  had  stood  about  four  hundred 
years,  was  totally  destroyed,  and  Zedekiah  brought  in  chains 
to  Babylonia,  where  he  remained  in  prison  till  he  died. 
Thus  Judah  was  driven  away  out  of  their  land,  860  years 
after  they  had  been  put  in  possession  of  it  by  Joshua. 

JEWS  TN  BABYLON.     REBUILDING  OF  THE  TEMPLE. 
EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH. 

The  Jews  in  Babylonia  were  not  ill-treated,  however;  they 
were  treated  with  kindness,  were  allowed  to  hold  property, 
and  some  were  even  appointed  to  posts  of  honor  and  re- 
sponsibility ;  but  they  were  not  contented;  their  greatest 
longing  was  to  return  to  their  native  land.  They  were,  after 
all,  but  captives,  and  often  they  sat  by  the  river-side  to  weep 
and  mourn  the  loss  of  their  beloved  country,  of  their 
cherished  freedom.  In  this  condition  they  continued  some 
fifty  years.  It  was  then  that  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia  and 


Media,  conquered  Babylonia,  and  the  Jews  became  tributary 
to  the  Persian  kingdom.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the 
Jews  here  spoken  of  were  those  only  who  had  constituted 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  which  still  formed  an  integer,  to 
the  exclusion  of  those  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  which  had 
been  dispersed  by  Shalmaneser.  The  former  now  assumed 
the  name  of  Jews  (Jehudim)  after  their  patriarch  Judah, 
and  were  thenceforth  so  designated. 

Cyrus,  the  new  king,  was  friendly  to  the  Jews.  Daniel, 
the  exemplary  youth  who  so  nobly  maintained  his  religious 
principles,  even  in  opposition  to  the  decrees  of  his  mighty 
master  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  refused  to  bow  to  the  idol  the 
latter  had  erected,  had  grown  old  under  the  reign  of  the 
Persian  kings  and  risen  to  great  dignity  and  power;  and  it 
is  quite  probable  that  through  his  influence  the  welcome 
edict  was  issued  by  Cyrus  that  the  Hebrews  might  return  to 
their  own  land.  He  not  only  gave  them  permission  to  go 
back  and  rebuild  the  Temple,  he  gave  them  back  all  the  gold 
and  silver  vessels,  5400  in  number,  which  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  carried  away  ;  and  under  the  leadership  of  their  chief- 
tain Zerubbabel,  some  42,000  Jews,  with  their  families  and 
servants — only  a  portion  of  those  that  inhabited  Babylonia 
— went  forth  joyful  and  hopeful,  returning  to  their  dear  native 
land.  They  at  once  set  about  erecting  an  altar  for  the  regu- 
lar sacrifices,  and  the  families  went  each  to  look  after  their 
landed  property,  the  inheritance  from  which  they  had  been 
driven. 

But  the  Jews  did  not  succeed  in  rebuilding  their  Temple 
without  delay.  The  Samaritans,  being  jealous  of  the  pros- 
perity of  the  Jews,  spoke  evil  against  them,  and  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  Temple  was  interrupted.  These  Samaritans  were  a 
people  of  mixed  races,  being  partly  of  Jewish  and  partly  of 
heathen  descent;  and  so  was  their  religion  a  mixture  of 
Jewish  and  heathen  practices.  They  had  adopted  the  books 
of  Moses  as  the  guide  of  religion,  and  now  desired  to  join 


the  genuine  Jews  in  the  erection  of  their  new  Temple  ;  but 
the  latter  rejected  them  disdainfully  and  would  have  noth- 
ing to  do  with  them.  Hereupon  the  Samaritans  did  all  in 
their  power  to  oppose  the  Jews  ;  they  sent  a  letter  to  the 
king  who  had  succeeded  Cyrus,  stating  that  it  was  danger- 
ous to  the  Persian  kingdom  to  let  the  Jews  rise  to  power 
again  ;  and  thereupon  the  Jews  were  ordered  to  discontinue 
their  building.  Fifteen  years  later,  however,  under  the 
reign  of  Darius  II.,  the  new  Temple  was  finished  and  dedi- 
cated. 

During  the  long  reign  of  Darius,  the  Jews  enjoyed  peace 
and  prosperity.  He  was  succeeded  by  Xerxes  I.,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  this  was  the  Ahasuerus  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  with  whom  happened  the  memorable  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  Mordecai  and  Esther  with  which  I  suppose  you  are 
all  acquainted.  In  the  reign  of  the  succeeding  monarch 
happened  the  immigration  to  Jerusalem  of  many  more  Jews 
under  Ezra,  the  great  scribe,  who  afterwards  gathered  up 
and  wrote  down  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  ;  subse- 
quently Nehemiah  exerted  himself  to  re-establish  the  observ- 
ance of  the  law  among  his  people,  and  to  rebuild  and  fortify 
the  city  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  both  of  these  men  were  zealous 
workers  and  faithful  leaders  ;  the  history  of  whose  life  and 
action  you  find  fully  described  in  the  Scriptures. 

THE  SAMARITAN  AND  THE  EGYPTIAN  TEMPLES.     JEWS  AT 
ALEXANDRIA. 

Now  you  must  know  that,  besides  two  temples  which  the 
Jews  built  at  Jerusalem,  there  were  two  others  dedicated 
to  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  Manasseh,  the  son  of  a  high- 
priest,  having  married  the  daughter  of  Samballat,  a  leader 
of  the  Samaritans,  was  expelled  from  among  his  people. 
Thereupon  Samballat  assembled  his  people  and  induced 
them  to  build  a  rival  temple  on  mount  Gerizim,  not  far  from 
Jerusalem,  which  still  deepened  the  hatred  already  existing 


between  the  two  parties.  This  temple  stood  two  hundred 
years,  and  was  destroyed  by  Hyrcanus  I.,  a  priest  of  the 
Asmonean  family,  of  which  we  will  speak  more  fully  here- 
after. Another  temple  was  established  in  Alexandria,  where 
a  great  many  Jews  (some  30,000  families)  had  settled  under 
the  Ptolemies.  Onias,  a  genuine  Jewish  priest,  having  been 
much  in  favor  with  Ptolemy  Philometer  and  queen  Cleopa- 
tra, obtained  from  the  king  an  abandoned  and  half-ruined 
Egyptian  temple  which  he  transformed  into  a  Jewish  place  of 
worship,  and  where  divine  service  was  performed  as  at  Jeru- 
salem. This  temple  remained  till  the  time  of  Vespasian? 
the  Roman  conqueror  (66  C.E.). 

Alexandria  being  then  the  retreat  of  Grecian  learning,  the 
Jews  turned  their  attention  to  general  literature  and  philoso- 
phy. It  is  said  that  the  celebrated  Greek  translation  of  the 
Scriptures,  called  the  Septuagint,  was  made  or  at  least  begun  at 
that  period ;  that  seventy-two  Jewish  translators  were,  for 
that  purpose,  shut  up  in  separate  rooms  by  order  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  where  each  of  them  completed  the  new  version ; 
and  that,  by  way  of  a  miracle,  the  translations  were  all  found 
to  agree  word  for  word.  There  is,  however,  no  good  author- 
ity for  this  statement,  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  ground- 
less tradition,  a  mere  matter  of  fiction.  The  Alexandrian 
Jews,  though  frequently  annoyed  by  both  the  native  Egyp- 
tians and  the  Greeks,  and  rebuked  even  by  their  own  breth- 
ren for  adopting  the  Greek  language  and  literature,  mingled 
nevertheless  in  all  national  transactions,  and  obtained  the 
highest  honors  of  the  state.  Onias,  who  built  the  temple, 
filled  the  most  eminent  offices  in  the  state  and  in  the  army; 
and  at  a  later  period  we  find  Chelcias  and  Ananias,  two 
Jews,  commanding  the  armies  of  Cleopatra. 


JEWS  UNDER   PERSIAN  AND    GRECIAN  RULE.     THE  MAC- 
CABEES. 

Returning  to  Palestine,  we  find  that  the  Jews  for  a  long 
time  enjoyed  perfect  peace  under  the  administration  of 
their  high-priests  and  local  governors,  until  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  When  this  monarch  became  the  con- 
queror and  ruler  of  Persia,  he  brought  Judea'  also  under 
the  rule  of  his  sceptre,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Jews 
suffered  materially  from  this  change  of  government.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander,  the  eastern  world  was  frequently 
agitated  by  cruel  wars,  and  Judea,  in  its  turn,  was  more  than 
once  attacked  and  conquered,  again  released,  and  again  sub- 
jected by  Egyptian  and  by  Syro-Grecian  rulers,  while  at  the 
same  time  internal  strife  and  division  among  the  Jews  them- 
selves increased  the  misfortunes  brought  on  them  by  foreign 
tyranny,  and  eventually  led  to  the  plunder  and  ruin  of  the 
holy  city  and  almost  to  the  complete  extermination  of  the 
Jewish  people.  The  different  sects  denominated  Pharisees, 
Sadducees,  and  Essenes  had  sprung  into  existence  by  that 
time,  and  constituted  the  different  factions  of  the  nation. 
It  was  now  about  two  hundred  years  since  the  erection  of 
the  second  Temple.  Antiochos  Epiphanes  had  ascended  the 
throne,  and  the  Jews  were  his  subjects.  He  determined 
to  exterminate  the  Jewish  religion  and  substitute  instead 
that  of  the  Greeks.  He  made  a  violent  attempt  to  execute 
his  purpose  ;  marched  against  Jerusalem,  took  possession  of 
the  Temple,  slaughtered  many  Jews  and  sold  many  more  as 
sUves.  At  that  time  arose  the  heroic  family  of  the  Asino- 
neans  who,  with  the  small  forces  under  their  command, 
repelled  the  mighty  Antiochos,  and  regained  their  indepen- 
dence and  the  possession  of  their  city  and  Temple.  This 
is  the  history  of  the  Maccabees  which  gave  rise  to  the 
feast  of  Hannucah,  the  same  which  you  hear  recited  every 


year  and  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  be  repeated  here  at 
length. 

THE  SADDUCEES,  ESSENES,  PHARISEES,  AND    KARAITES. 

We  have  spoken  in  the  preceding  paragraph  of  the  differ- 
ent sects  among  the  Jews.  Now,  before  proceeding  with  the 
narrative  of  our  history,  I  will  inform  you  of  the  origin  and 
opinions  of  these  respective  sects.  Three  classes  chiefly 
are  to  be  distinguished;  the  Sadducees,  the  Essenes,  and 
the  Pharisees  ;  and  likewise  the  sect  of  Karaites  may  be 
mentioned  here,  which,  though  it  made  no  figure  in  history 
till  a  later  period,  is  to  be  considered  as  a  branch  of  the 
Sadducean  school.  The  Sadducean  sect  is  generally  believ- 
ed to  have  originated  with  Zadok,  one  of  the  disciples  of 
Antigonos  of  Socho,  president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  who  lived 
about  250  years  before  the  common  era.  The  principles  of 
that  sect  were,  a  firm  belief  in  the  divine  origin  of  the  Bible, 
but  a  total  rejection  of  the  Oral  law  and  rabbinical  tradi- 
ions.  They  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  a  future 
recompense,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  the  exist- 
tence  of  angels.  This  sect  was  never  very  numerous,  but 
its  adherents  were  of  the  highest  and  most  literary  classes. 
The  origin  of  the  Essenes  is  still  more  doubtful.  Some 
suppose  it  to  have  begun  at  the  time  of  Samuel  the  prophet; 
others,  with  more  probability  of  correctness,  believe  that 
this  sect  originated  among  the  Hellenists,  that  is,  Jews  who 
long  dwelt  among  the  Greeks,  adopted  the  Greek  language, 
and  having  studied  the  philosophy  of  Pythagoras  and  Plato, 
amalgamated  the  same  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Mosaic 
books.  The  Essenes  were  much  given  to  a  secluded  mode 
of  life,  to  study  and  contemplation  ;  and  their  doctrines 
were  much  involved  in  secrecy.  This  much,  however,  is 
known,  they  held  adoration  of  God  and  benevolence  to 
mankind  to  constitute  the  essence  of  religion.  They  believed 
in  the  validity  of  the  Mosaic  laws,  not  so  as  to  be  bound  to 


a  literal  observance,  but  adopting  the  spirit  of  them.  One  of 
their  principles  "was  that  God  can  be  worshiped  only  in 
spirit,  through  inward  virtue  ;  they  therefore  rejected  sacri- 
fices and  all  ceremonies,  even  those  of  the  Mosaic  code. 
They  believed  in  immortality,  in  hell  and  paradise.  They 
despised  riches,  and  lived  in  a  state  of  communism.  We 
find  accounts  of  them  down  to  the  time  of  Justinian  and  no 
further.  The  Pharisees  were  the  strict  adherents  to  the 
rabbinical  laws  and  traditions,  believing  that  these  oral  laws 
were  of  divine  origin,  having  been  verbally  imparted  by  God 
to  Moses,  and  transmitted  to  posterity.  They  believed  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  in  future  reward  and  punish- 
ment, and  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  which  latter  doctrine 
they  seem  to  have  mixed  up  with  ideas  of  the  transmigration 
of  souls,  that  is,  that  after  man's  death  the  soul  passes  into 
another  body,  which  was  the  doctrine  of  Pythagoras.  The 
Pharisees  appear  to  have  at  all  times  constituted  the  majority 
of  the  nation.  The  sect  of  Karaites  appears  to  have  assumed 
its  distinct  form  about  the  time  of  Hyrcanus  I.,  or  shortly 
before  it.  They  agree  with  the  Sadducees  on  the  point  of 
rejecting  the  authority  of  the  oral  laws,  and  on  that  account 
the  Rabbinists  have  placed  them  on  an  equality  and  under 
the  same  denomination  with  the  Sadducees  ;  but  the  Kara- 
ites emphatically  disclaim  the  similarity,  as  they  firmly  be- 
lieve in  immortality,  in  future  retribution,  in  resurrection 
and  restoration  of  the  Jews  under  the  Messiah.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  Karaism  revived  under  the 
leadership  of  R.  Anan  and  his  son  Saul,  who  are  considered 
the  founders  of  modern  Karaism,  and  since  that  time  down 
to  the  present  it  has  been  a  confirmed  sect  in  many  parts  of 
the  world.  Karaite  congregations  are  yet  existing  in  many 
towns  in  the  East,  in  Austrian  Galicia,  and  in  the  Crimea. 
They  are  especially  noted  for  their  frugality,  industry,  and 
integrity,  and  the  sect  has  produced  many  men  of  profound 
scholarship. 


10 


THE  ASMONEAN  DYNASTY. 

Resuming  now  the  thread  of  our  history,  we  begin  with 
the  condition  of  the  Jews  during  the  reign  of  the  Asmoneans. 
Since  the  time  of  the  first  Temple,  when  Zedekiah,  the  last 
king  of  Judah,  was  dethroned  and  imprisoned,  the  Jews  had 
had  no  king.  They  were  since  governed  by  their  high-priests, 
who  did  not  assume  the  royal  title  or  dignity.  Jonathan, 
son  of  Mattathias  and  brother  of  the  valiant  Judas  the 
Maccabee,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  united  in 
himself  not  only  the  functions,  but  also  the  titles  of  king 
and  high-priest,  and  with  him  commenced  the  reign  of  the 
Asmonean  princes.  His  brother  and  successor  Simon  re- 
established the  independence  of  his  nation  from  the  Syrian 
sceptre;  negotiated  for  a  cessation  of  the  taxes  to  which 
they  had  been  subject,  and  peace  and  tranquillity  reigned 
for  a  few  years  among  the  nation.  It  was  in  the  reign  of 
Simon  also  that  the  first  Jewish  coin,  the  shekel  and  its 
smaller  denominations,  were  struck.  Judas,  in  his  time,  had 
already  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Romans,  and  this 
treaty  was  ratified  or  renewed  by  Simon,  and  thus  the  Jews 
began  to  intermix  with  the  Romans.  Simon  was  assassin- 
ated by  his  son-in-law  Ptolemy.  (None  of  these  noble 
Asmonean  brothers  had  been  allowed  a  peaceful  end  ;  they  all 
died  a?  martyrs  for  the  independence  and  glory  of  their  peo- 
ple.) After  the  death  of  Simon,  his  son  John  Hyrcanus,  then 
Aristobulus,  then  Alexander  Janneus,  then  the  latter's  widow 
Salome  Alexandra,  and  after  her  the  rival  brothers  Hyrca- 
nus IT.  and  Aristobulus,  were  the  successive  rulers  of  the 
nation.  These  two  brothers  were  for  some  time  contending 
for  the  occupancy  of  the  throne  which  rightfully  belonged  to 
Hyrcanus,  the  elder  of  the  two.  But  the  younger  was  of  a 
bold  and  restless  disposition,  and  having  by  his  daring 
enterprises  gained  the  affections  of  the  people,  the  milder 
Hyrcanus  at  length  yielded  the  sovereignty  to  his  ambi- 


II 

tious  brother,    retaining   for   himself   but    the  high-priest- 
hood. 

POMPEY'S  ATTACK  ON  THE  TEMPLE.      JEWS  IN  CONTACT 
WITH  ROMANS  AND  IDUMEANS. 

Hyrcanus  I.  had  subjected  Idutnea,  a  country  bordering  on 
the  south  of  Palestine,  and  forced  its  inhabitants  to  embrace 
Judaism.  These  Idumeans  became  afterwards  a  source  of 
great  misfortune  to  the  Israelites  ;  one  of  them,  Antipater, 
whose  father  had  held  the  position  of  governor  of  Idumea, 
acquired  great  influence  over  the  feeble  minded  Hyrcanus, 
who,  was  instigated  by  his  crafty  advisers  to  renew  the  strife 
with  his  brother  for  possessing  the  throne.  Both  gathered 
a  number  of  followers  and  an  animated  struggle  ensued. 
At  this  juncture  an  outsider  interfered  to  settle  the  differ- 
ence. This  arbitrator  was  the  Roman  warrior  Pompey. 
At  first  he  put  on  the  appearance  of  impartiality.,  listened 
to  the  complaints  of  the  parties,  and  put  off  his  decision  for 
a  next  meeting.  In  the  mean  time  Pompey  attended  to  his 
more  important  business,  namely,  that  of  conquering  Arabia ; 
and  after  having  subjected  many  of  the  Asiatic  powers, 
marched  upon  Judea  for  the  purpose  of  subjugating  it  to  the 
Roman  rule.  The  weak  Hyrcanus  and  his  party  yielded  at 
once,  but  Aristobulus  resisted.  The  troops  of  the  latter 
posted  themselves  in  the  Temple  and  held  it  against  the 
enemy  for  three  months.  The  Temple  being  on  a  hill,  was 
an  almost  impregnable  stronghold,  and  was  lost  only  through 
an  over-scrupulous  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  the  Jews  be- 
lieving it  to  be  a  desecration  of  the  day  to  carry  on  war, 
except  it  be  absolute  self-defense;  and  the  enemy,  taking 
advantage  of  this  circumstance,  found  an  opportunity  of 
storming  the  Temple  on  that  day  without  meeting  with  any 
resistance. 

Pompey  showed  himself  a  generous  enemy.  On  entering 
the  Temple,  he  was  exceedingly  surprised  to  find  that  it  was 


12 

not  like  other  temples,  filled  with  statues  or  symbols  of  the 
Deity.  The  numerous  golden  vessels,  and  the  large  amount 
of  treasure  he  found,  next  excited  his  wonder ;  but  he  left  it 
all  untouched,  and  ordered  his  soldiers  to  vacate  the  Temple. 
He  appointed  Hyrcanus  as  high-priest,  but  without  the 
royal  title,  and  exacted  no  more  than  an  annual  tax  from 
the  country,  while  Aristobulus  with  his  sons  and  daughters 
were  carried,  to  Rome  as  prisoners.  Hyrcanus  being  de- 
prived of  royal  power,  the  Idumean  Antipater  was  appointed 
governor,  and  Judea  virtually,  though  not  nominally,  became 
a  Roman  dependency.  The  Jews  now  became  gradually 
more  and  more  intermixed  with  the  Roman  people.  Be- 
sides those  who  had  been  carried  thither  as  captives,  others 
voluntarily  settled  there,  and  these  really  formed  a  commu- 
nity of  their  own,  and  were  recognized  as  Roman  citizens. 
Antipater,  though  a  Jew  by  name,  had  not  the  interests 
of  the  nation  at  heart,  and  sought  to  gain  power  by  ingra- 
tiating himself  with  Caesar,  whom  he  rendered  material  ser- 
vice, supplying  him  with  troops  and  taking  up  the  sword  in 
his  defense.  He  was  consequently  rewarded  by  receiving 
from  Caesar  the  right  of  Roman  citizenship  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  procurator  over  the  whole  of  Judea.  The  cunning 
Idumean  governor  found  his  influence  and  power  daily  in- 
creasing, and  the  object  he  now  aimed  at  was  to  overthrow 
the  Asmonean  dynasty,  and  substitute  that  of  his  own 
family.  For  this  purpose  he  appointed  his  eldest  son  Pha- 
sael  to  the  government  of  Jerusalem,  and  his  younger,  Herod, 
to  that  of  Galilee,  the  northern  province  of  Palestine. 

HEROD  AS  GOVERNOR.     THE  LAST  OF  THE  ASMONEANS. 

This  appointment  of  Herod  as  governor  of  Galilee  was  the 
first  step  which  led  him  to  that  high,  though  not  enviable 
position  which  he  afterwards  attained.  The  sceptre  had 
now  virtually  departed  from  the  Asmonean  house.  The 
Israelites  had  been  governed  by  them  for  more  than  a  hun- 


dred  years,  and  become  attached  to  them,  though  their 
government  never  was  very  prosperous ;  Antigonus  the  son, 
and  Aristobulus  the  grandson  of  Hyrcanus  were  the  only 
surviving  branches  of  the  family,  and,  like  the  rest  of  them, 
were  doomed  to  an  untimely  and  unnatural  death.  Anti- 
gonus, it  is  true,  had  by  an  unexpected  circumstance — the 
rising  of  the  Parthians — gained  the  ascendency,  and  held  both 
the  sceptre  and  the  office  of  high-priest  for  a  short  period  of 
three  years  and  a  half,  but  he  was  rather  an  instrument  in  the 
hands  of  a  political  party  than  a  self-dependent  monarch ; 
his  power  was  soon  wrested  from  him  ;  and  being  defeated 
in  battle,  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  at  the  urgent  solicita- 
tions of  Herod  he  was  ignominiously  put  to  death.  Thus 
perished  the  eighth  and  last  of  the  Asmonean  princes  who 
wielded  the  sceptre.  Young  Aristobulus,  the  son  of  the 
latter,  was  yet  alive,  and  his  presence  seemed  an  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  the  usurper  Herod.  He  was  tall  and  handsome, 
and  the  eyes  of  the  people  rested  upon  him  as  the  relic  of 
past  grandeur  and  glory.  Some  unforeseen  events  might 
concur  to  bestow  upon  this  last  scion  the  crown  which  his 
ancestors  had  so  honorably  worn.  But  the  crafty  Herod 
lacked  no  means  for  accomplishing  his  purpose,  and  des- 
patching any  object  adverse  to  his  interests.  Under  the 
pretences  of  friendship,  he  invited  the  youth  to  Jericho,  to 
one  of  his  mansions ;  gave  orders  to  his  servants  to  drown 
him  while  bathing,  as  if  by  accident  ;  and  thus  the  last 
male  survivor  of  the  Asmonean  family  was  put  out  of  the 
way. 

HEROD'S  REIGN. 

We  have  in  the  above  paragraph  spoken  briefly  of  Herod, 
so  undeservedly  called  the  great;  but  his  career  was  too  im- 
portant, too  full  of  intrigues  and  atrocious  crimes,  and  of  too 
great  an  influence  on  the  fate  of  the  nation  to  require  no 
more  than  a  passing  notice.  This  wicked  adventurer  so 


14 

worked  himself  into  the  favor  of  the  emperor  Augustus  and 
Mark  Antony  that  they  united  in  conferring  on  him  the 
crown  of  Judea.  His  character  was  bold,  fiercely  passionate, 
and  most  barbarously  cruel,  yet  his  talents  as  a  statesman 
and  a  warrior  were  eminent.  One  of  his  first  acts  after 
assuming  the  rein  of  government  was  the  murder  of  all  the 
members  of  the  Sanhedrin  who  had  opposed  his  rule,  except- 
ing only  two  of  them  who  had  shown  themselves  favorable 
to  his  cause.  As  proofs  of  his  relentless  cruelty  we  may  cite 
the  following  instances  which  constitute  but  a  small  part  of 
the  long  list  of  his  atrocities.  Herod  married  successively 
ten  wives,  the  second  of  whom  was  Mariamne,  an  Asmonean 
princess  of  exceeding  beauty  ;  indeed,  she  was  considered 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  whole  nation.  The  love  he  bore 
her  was  exceeded  only  by  his  extreme  jealousy.  Being 
obliged  to  leave  Jerusalem  in  order  to  meet  Mark  Antony 
on  a  hazardous  mission  concerning  his  government,  he 
intrusted  the  cares  of  the  realm,  as  well  as  his  beautiful  wife, 
to  his  uncle  Joseph,  with  the  strict  but  secret  charge,  that  if 
he  should  fail  in  his  mission  and  perish,  Mariamne  was  to  be 
immediately  put  to  death.  Joseph  betrayed  this  secret  to 
Mariamne,  and  on  Herod's  return  she  asked  him  if  it  could 
be  that  he  truly  loved  her  when  he  had  given  that  fatal  order 
for  her  death.  This  roused  his  suspicions  about  her  fidelity 
and  he  would  have  slain  her  on  the  spot,  were  it  not  that 
the  charm  of  her  beauty  restrained  him;  and  his  whole 
vengeance  fell  on  Joseph,  whom  he  ordered  to  be  executed. 
A  second  time  he  had  occasion  to  leave  the  capital,  and 
again  he  committed  Mariamne  to  the  care  of  two  friends, 
with  the  same  injunctions  that  she  was  to  be  slain  if  he  failed 
to  return.  Mariamne  and  her  mother  were  imprisoned  in  a 
cistle,  and  knowing  her  husband's  sentiments  towards  her, 
she  succeeded  in  extorting  from  her  jailer  the  secret  charge 
he  had  received  concerning  her  fate.  Herod  returned  and 
was  received  by  his  queen  with  disdain  ;  she  reproached 


him  with  his  inhumanity,  for  having  murdered  her  brother, 
her  grandfather,  and  other  relations  ;  and  scorned  to  re- 
ceive his  caresses.  To  make  matters  worse,  Herod's 
sister,  Salome,  caused  a  false  accusation  to  be  brought 
against  the  queen,  of  intentions  to  poison  the  king.  Herod 
summoned  the  queen  before  a  tribunal,  accused  her  of  in- 
fidelity and  murderous  intentions,  and  the  sentence  of  death 
was  pronounced  over  her.  The  most  violent  passions  now 
raged  in  Herod's  breast.  Love  and  indignation  strove  for 
the  mastery.  The  latter  prevailed,  however,  and  he  issued 
the  fatal  order  for  her  execution.  The  loss  of  Mariamne 
left  an  indelible  gloom  upon  Herod's  mind.  Day  and  night 
he  was  haunted  by  the  image  of  his  beloved  murdered  queen. 
He"  often  called  her  name  and  endeavored  to  soothe  him- 
self in  a  measure  by  ordering  the  death  of  her  executioner. 
Another  instance  of  this  man's  unbounded  cruelty  we 
find  in  one  of  his  last  orders,  issue  1  about  the  close 
of  his  life.  Feeling  his  end  approaching,  he  commanded 
that  some  members  of  all  the  principal  families  in  Judea 
be  seized  and  imprisoned  in  a  hippodrome  ;  he  then 
ordered  his  sister  Salome  and  her  husband  that,  as 
soon  as  he  should  have  expired,  the  whole  number  of  per- 
sons in  the  hippodrome  should  be  unsparingly  massacred,  in 
order  that,  with  the  news  of  his  death,  a  general  mourning 
should  spread  over  all  the  land.  This  sanguinary  order, 
however,  was  never  carried  into  effect.  To  enumerate  all 
the  wicked  acts  of  this  cruel  monster  would  require  several 
more  pages,  and  take  up  more  space  than  we  can  here  de- 
vote to  their  recital.  Even  his  own  sons,  Alexander  and 
Aristobulus,  whom  Mariamne  had  borne  to  him,  he  accused 
of  treason  and  had  them  executed,  and  we  hesitate  not  to 
assert  that,  among  all  wicked  rulers  that  swayed  a  sceptre, 
wore  a  crown,  or  mounted  a  throne,  the  detestable  Herod  I. 
deserves  to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  list. 


i6 


HEROD'S  REIGN  CONTINUED.     His  END. 

The  history  of  Herod's  reign  would,  however,  be  quite  in- 
complete should  we  neglect  to  give  an  account  of  some  other 
acts  of  his  life  which  do  not  partake  of  that  monstrosity  we 
have  just  depicted.  It  is  but  too  often  the  case  that  we  see 
the  wicked  live  in  prosperity,  even  in  glory;  but  the  outward 
appearance  of  their  good  fortune  does  not  generally  corre- 
spond with  their  inward  tranquillity  and  happiness.  Solomon 
says,  "The  prosperity  of  fools  (that  is,  of  the  impious)  shall 
destroy  them."  And  so  it  really  was  with  Herod.  His  re- 
peated successes  served  only  to  feed  the  flame  of  his  violent 
passions  which  burned  in  his  breast,  and  destroyed  his  peace  ; 
but  outwardly  his  magnificence  was  great  indeed,  and  under 
his  reign  the  Jewish  nation  rose  to  great  temporary  splendor  ; 
though  he  never  succeeded  in  gaining  the  attachment  of  his 
subjects,  who  ever  looked  upon  him  as  an  intruder,  the  mur- 
derer of  the  faithful  Asmoneans,  and  the  robber  of  their 
national  rights.  The  costly  and  magnificent  palaces  and 
other  structures  erected  by  Herod  surpassed  all  that  had 
ever  been  seen  in  Palestine  and  were  too  numerous  to  be 
all  mentioned  here.  We  will  describe  only  a  few  of  them. 
He  rebuilt  and  considerably  enlarged  the  city  of  Samaria, 
the  former  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  peopled  it 
with  his  Greek  and  Syrian  soldiers,  and  descendants  of  the 
Samaritans  (ever  the  eyesore  of  the  Jews)  and  called  it 
Sebaste  (the  August*),  in  honor  of  his  mighty  Roman 
protector.  A  small  town,  called  the  Tower  of  Straton,  sit- 
uated on  the  sea-coast,  was  Changed  into  a  fine,  large  city  and 
its  harbor  made  safe  by  the  sinking  of  immense  stones  which 
formed  a  pier,  and  thereon  were  placed  two  colossal  statues, 

*  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  this  first  Roman  emperor  here 
alluded  to  bore  the  multifarious  name  of  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus 
Augustus,  and  is  often  designated  by  one  or  other  of  these  names. 


one  representing  Rome,  the  other  Caesar,  and  it  was  adorned 
with  a  splendid  theatre  and  a  spacious  amphitheatre  after 
the  Grecian  style.  This  city  was  called  Csesarea,  in  honor  of 
the  imperial  family,  and  twelve  years  were  required  to  rebuild 
it.  In  order  to  flatter  still  more  the  pride  of  Augustus,  Herod 
introduced  the  Olympic  exhibitions,  where  all  sorts  of  games, 
such  as  wrestling,  racing,  fighting  of  wild  beasts  and  men, 
were  performed.  These  ferocious  amusements  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  were  quite  distasteful  to  the  Jews,  and  confirmed 
their  dislike  to  Herod  who,  it  was  evident,  endeavored  to 
replace  the  religious  idea  of  the  Jews  by  that  of  the  heathen. 
He  also  built  Gaba,  Heshbon,  Antipatris,  Cypron,  Phasaelis, 
and  other  towns,  most  of  which  were  named  after  his  Roman 
friends  and  members  of  his  family,  and  in  this  way  he  un- 
necessarily exhausted  the  wealth  of  Judea.  Seeing  that  he 
was  sinking  more  and  more  in  the  estimation  of  his  subjects, 
he  at  length  determined  on  a  measure  to  reconcile  and 
appease  them.  He  announced  his  intentions  to  rebuild  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  and  make  it  more  magnificent  than  it 
ever  had  been.  Consequently  the  old  building  was  pulled 
down,  and  on  its  site  was  erected  one  of  greater  extent  and 
surpassing  splendor.  White  marble  blocks  of  incredible  size 
and  finest  quality,  costly  woods  and  precious  metals,  were 
used  unsparingly  ;  many  thousands  of  men  and  years  of  labor 
were  employed  in  its  erection  ;  and  the  nation  saw  with  the 
utmost  pride  the  new  fabric  of  stately  architecture  with  its 
glittering  towers  and  pinnacles  of  gold  crowning  anew  the 
brow  of  Moriah.  Herod  I.  was  born  seventy-one  years  before 
the  beginning  of  the  common  era,  and  attained  nearly  to  the 
age  of  seventy  years.  In  the  thirty-third  year  of  his  reign  took 
place  the  birth  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  upon  whose  reputed 
sayings  and  opinions  the  Christian  religion  has  been  founded, 
some  two  or  three  hundred  years  after  his  death.  After  long 
mental  and  bodily  suffering,  Herod  died  of  a  loathsome  dis- 
ease, and  was  buried  with  great  pomp  in  one  of  his  palaces 
called  Herodium. 


i8 


ARCHELAUS. 

Herod's  testament  divided  the  kingdom  of  Judea  among 
his  three  sons  Archelaus,  Herod  Antipater,  and  Olympias ; 
but  it  was  made  subject  to  the  approval  of  Augustus.  While 
this  was  pending,  Archelaus  assumed  the  direction  of  affairs 
at  Jerusalem.  The  populace  was  turbulent,  divided  in 
opinion,  and  Jerusalem  was  torn  asunder  by  the  differences 
of  religious  and  political  parties.  The  people  demanded 
that  the  severity  under  which  they  had  been  should  be  miti- 
gated, their  taxes  be  lightened,  political  prisoners  released, 
and  justice  be  done  to  those  who  had  suffered  by  the  cruelty 
of  the  late  king,  whereupon  the  new  ruler  addressed  the 
multitude  in  a  conciliatory  speech,  promising  to  satisfy  them 
as  far  as  lay  in  his  power.  The  people,  however,  were  not 
satisfied  with  promises  ;  riots  occurred  daily  ;  strangers  en- 
tered to  take  advantage  of  the  occasion  and  make  themselves 
master  both  of  the  royal  power  and  of  the  treasures  ;  and 
strife  and  bloodshed  were  the  almost  immediate  results. 
Archelaus  had  inherited  much  of  the  cruelty  and  rapacity  of 
his  father,  but  not  his  abilities.  He  was  not  able  to  hold  the 
people  in  subjection  as  his  father  had  done.  The  decision 
of  Augustus  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  his  power, 
but  without  the  royal  title,  which  was  reserved  in  case  he 
should  prove  himself  worthy  of  wearing  the  crown,  but  to 
this  dignity  he  never  attained.  Complaints  of  his  un j  ust  and 
tyrannical  government  were  repeatedly  brought  before  the 
emperor,  with  petitions  from  the  Judeans  that  they  might  be 
freed  from  the  oppression  of  the  unworthy  king  ;  until  at  last 
he  was  summoned  to  Rome  to  defend  himself.  The  com- 
plaints against  him  were  investigated,  he  was  convicted  of 
misgovernment,  and  after  a  rule  of  nine  years  was  de- 
throned and  banished  to  Vienna,  in  Gaul,  whence  he  never 
returned. 


JUDEA  A  ROMAN  PROVINCE.  THE  SANHEDRIN. 
After  the  removal  of  Archelaus,  Judea  was  declared  as  part 
of  a  Roman  province  under  the  viceregency  of  Syria,  and 
all  the  internal  affairs  of  the  country  were  under  direction  of 
Roman  officers.  Only  the  administration  of  the  Jewish  laws, 
when  they  came  not  in  contact  with  matters  touching  on  pol- 
itics, were  left  to  the  Sanhedrin ;  while  even  the  execution 
of  capital  punishment,  the  appointment  or  removal  of  a  high- 
priest,  and  other  important  matters  properly  belonging  to  the 
judicial  power  of  the  Sanhedrin,  were  controlled  by  a  Roman 
officer.  Now  it  is  necessary  that  you  should  know  something 
about  the  body  called  Sanhedrin,  its  origin  and  its  functions. 
The  word  Sanhedrin  means  council  or  assembly,  and  is  ap- 
plied particularly  to  an  assembly  of  judges  among  the  Jews, 
whose  province  it  was  to  debate  upon  and  decide  ecclesiasti- 
cal and  civil  points  of  law.  There  was  one  great  Sanhedrin 
consisting  of  seventy-one  members,  usually  presided  over  by 
the  high-priest,  whose  authority  extended  over  the  whole 
nation;  and  there  was  besides  a  smaller  Sanhedrin,  consist- 
ing of  twenty-three  members,  in  every  large  town  of  the 
country.  The  great  Sanhedrin  was  properly  no  more  than 
an  ecclesiastical  court  ;  its  functions  were  chiefly  to  inter- 
pret and  determine  the  laws  of  the  Mosaic  code,  not  losing 
sight  of  the  oral  or  traditional  interpretations  connected 
with  the  same  and  adopted  as  authoritative.  It  was  further 
in  the  province  of  that  body  to  decide  upon  the  opening  of 
war  with  foreign  powers,  upon  the  extension  of  the  temple 
and  city  limits,  and  to  watch  over  and  preserve  the  family 
records  so  as  to  prevent  any  admixture  of  foreign  blood 
among  the  Jewish  race  ;  while  doubtful  or  difficult  cases  of 
any  kind  were  also  brought  before  them  for  adjustment 
All  civil  and  criminal  proceedings  were  adjusted  by  the 
smaller  Sanhedrin  of  twenty-three,  and  some  of  the  minor- 
points  were  treated  even  by  a  council  of  three.  The  great 


2O 

Sanhedrin  held  their  sittings  in  a  semicircular  form  in  one 
of  the  chambers  of  the  Temple  ;  their  discussions  were 
public,  and  strangers  were  even  permitted  occasionally  to 
enter  into  their  debates.  The  origin  of  the  institution  is 
doubtful.  Its  source  may  be  traced  as  far  back  as  the 
time  of  Moses,  who  gathered  seventy  elders  to  deliberate  with 
himself  the  affairs  of  the  nation.  A  similar  gathering  in 
the  time  of  Ezra  was  called  the  great  synagogue,  and  later, 
when  Grecian  manners  and  Grecian  names  became  more 
prevalent  among  the  Jews,  the  institution  was  entitled 
Sanhedrin. 

AGRIPPA  I.     QUEEN  HELENA. 

Some  time  elapsed  between  the  deposition  of  Archelaus  and 
the  appointment  of  his  successor,  who  was  Agrippa  I.,  grand- 
son of  Herod.  He  was  in  Rome  during  the  serious  disturb- 
ances between  the  senate  and  the  army,  and  having  acted 
with  great  moderation,  and  rendered  very  valuable  services 
to  the  empire,  was  rewarded  by  having  the  crown  of  Judea 
bestowed  on  him,  and  by  the  investiture  of  all  the  dominions 
which  had  belonged  to  his  grandfather.  On  assuming  the 
reins  of  government,  he  showed  the  greatest  respect  for  the 
national  religion,  and  to  a  great  extent  gained  the  affections 
of  his  subject ;  and  after  a  reign  of  seven  years,  died  in  the 
fifty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  Agrippa  left  a  son  of  the  same 
name,  who  at  his  father's  death  was  only  seventeen  years 
old.  He  was  thought  not  sufficiently  advanced  in  years  to 
hold  the  reins  of  government,  and  Judea  was  again  placed 
under  the  administration  of  a  Roman  governor.  A  singular 
event  took  place  at  this  time,  which  was  that  Helena,  queen 
of  Adiabene,  a  district  beyond  the  Tigris,  adopted  the  Jew- 
ish faith  ;  and  what  is  still  more  singular,  her  son  Izates,  who 
had  been  sent  by  his  father,  King  Monobazus,  to  a  far-off 
country  on  the  Persian  gulf,  also  embraced  Judaism,  without 
the  mother  and  son  knowing  of  each  other's  conversion. 


21 

During  a  grievous  famine  which  then  raged  in  Judea,  both 
Helena  and  her  son  sent  large  quantities  of  grain,  dried  figs, 
and  money  to  be  distributed  among  the  poor  inhabitants  of 
Judea.  This  Jewish  convert  Izates  succeeded  his  father  on 
the  throne,  reigned  very  successfully  for  twenty-four  years 
(a  converted  Jewish  king  over  a  heathen  nation),  and  his 
remains  as  well  as  those  of  Helena  were  transported  to 
Jerusalem  and  there  placed  in  a  splendid  tomb. 

CALIGULA'S  REIGN.     MASSACRE  AT  ALEXANDRIA. 

Before  speaking  of  the  successor  of  Agrippa,  we  must  turn 
our  attention  for  a  while  to  the  state  of  the  Jews  at  Alexan- 
dria, and  the  vicissitudes  which  befell  them  when  Agrippa 
began  to  reign.  I  have  told  you  already  that  a  large  number 
of  Jews  had  taken  up  their  abode  in  Alexandria,  and  that 
they  had  even  established  a  temple  there,  with  the  same 
form  of  worship  as  was  conducted  at  Jerusalem  ;  in  fact,  the 
Alexandrian  community  had  become  a  kind  of  rival  to  that 
of  Jerusalem,  and  was  looked  upon  as  such  by  their  brethren 
in  Palestine.  It  is  supposed  there  were  at  that  time  not  less 
than  a  million  of  Jews  in  Egypt.  During  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus and  Tiberius,  the  first  two  emperors  of  Rome,  the  Jews, 
though  not  quite  independent,  enjoyed  considerable  freedom 
in  the  exercise  of  their  religion  and  in  their  civil  rights ;  now 
that  Caligula  had  ascended  the  throne,  matters  assumed  a 
different  aspect.  This  silly  monarch  was  not  satisfied  to  be 
looked  upon  as  the  sole  and  absolute  master  of  a  mighty 
empire,  he  wished  to  be  adored  as  a  god,*  and  ordered 
temples  and  statues  representing  his  person  to  be  placed  all 
over  his  dominions,  that  the  people  might  worship  him ;  and 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  was  also  to  have  a  statue  of  the 

*  Not  unlike  Clothaire  I.  (560),  who,  astonished  to  find  himself 
dying,  exclaimed,  "  Quel  est  ce  roi  des  cieux  qui  tue  ainsi  les  grands 
rois  de  la  terre  ?" 


22 

emperor.  To  this  the  Israelites  could  not  submit,  as  it 
would  have  been  a  violation  of  the  first  principle  of  their 
religion.  The  Jews  opposed  themselves  with  all  their  might 
against  this  mandate,  and  a  bloody  war  might  have  been  the 
result,  but  fortunately  for  them,  before  the  command  was 
enforced,  the  glad  tidings  came  that  Caligula  had  been 
assassinated,  and  thus  they  escaped  this  imminent  danger. 
But  Alexandria  became  the  scene  of  terrible  strife  and 
massacre.  This  great  metropolis  was  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Egyptians,  Jews,  and  Greeks,  each  of  whom  was  detested 
by  the  other  two,  and  hated  the  others  in  return.  Now, 
when  Agrippa  left  Rome  for  Palestine  to  take  possession  of 
his  throne,  he  stopped  on  his  way  at  Alexandria,  and  the 
Greeks,  exasperated  at  seeing  a  Jew  in  regal  splendor,  with 
a  large  retinue  in  glittering  armor,  offered  him  the  grossest 
insults,  and  the  ire  of  the  populace  being  once  aroused,  they 
found  an  easy  pretense  for  a  general  attack  on  the  Jews 
They  insisted  that  the  image  of  the  emperor  should  be 
placed  in  all  the  Jewish  places  of  worship,  and  not  con- 
tented with  carrying  out  this  design,  they  set  about  demolish- 
ing or  burning  some  of  their  oratories.  Their  dwellings  and 
storehouses  were  next  plundered,  and  the  goods  openly 
shared  in  the  market-place.  The  Jews,  being  driven  to  one 
narrow  quarter  of  the  city,  suffered  fearfully  from  the  heat 
and  foul  air,  and. famine  and  pestilence  were  the  result; 
those  who  ventured  to  come  out  were  slain  and  often  put  to 
the  most  cruel  tortures  and  their  dead  bodies  dragged  about 
the  streets  to  fully  satisfy  the  brutal  vengeance  of  their 
enemies.  It  was  the  morning  spectacle  of  the  theatre  to  see 
the  Jews  scourged  and  tortured  in  different  ways  before  being 
led  to  execution;  and  this  horrible  tragedy  was  succeeded 
by  dances  and  farces  and  other  theatrical  amusement.  I 
might  tell  you  much  more  about  the  inhuman  acts  of  these 
ferocious  Greeks — acts  which  make  the  blood  run  cold  and 
make  one  wonder  how  beings  in  human  form  could  be  so 


degenerate,  and  so  deprived  of  all  humanity ;  but  the  scene 
is  too  horrible  to  dwell  upon  longer  than  necessary.  We 
will  only  add  that  these  barbarities  might  have  been  pre- 
vented ifFlaccus  Aquilius,  the  Roman  prefect  at  Alexandria, 
had  used  his  influence  and  power  to  that  end,  but  he  also 
was  a  Jew-hater,  and  instead  of  opposing  these  rioters, 
rather  encouraged  them  in  their  bloody  deeds.  But  we  find 
many  examples,  especially  in  the  history  of  the  Jews,  of  the 
wicked  receiving  their  reward  even  in  this  world,  and 
Flaccus  may  be  named  as  one  of  them.  He"  fell  into  dis- 
favor with  the  emperor,  was  seized  and  his  property  con- 
fiscated, then  banished,  and  ultimately  put  to  death  by 
order  of  Caligula. 

TROUBLES  IN  BABYLONIA.     ASSINAI  AND  ANILAI. 

But  not  only  in  Egypt  were  the  Jews  subjected  to  much 
suffeiing,  also  in  Babylonia,  where  a  great  many  of  them  re- 
sided, a  cloud  of  rain  and  desolation  burst  over  their  heads. 
You  have  read  before,  that,  when  the  Jews  left  Babylon  to 
return  to  Jerusalem  under  Zerub babel,  a  number  of  families 
remained  behind.  These  had  now  become  very  numerous. 
The  great  cities  of  Nehardea  and  Nisibis  were  inhabited 
chiefly  by  thern,  and.  it  was  in  the  former  that  their  cele- 
brated theological  school  was  established,  from  which  pro- 
ceeded so  many  great  men  of  learning.  The  Babylonian 
Jews  did  not,  like  those  of  Alexandria,  build  themselves  a 
temple  and  secede  from  the  Palestine  community;  they  were, 
notwithstanding  their  attachment  to  their  homes,  strict  ad- 
herents to  the  ancient  law  and  to  the  Jerusalem  Temple,  to 
the  support  of  which  they  largely  contributed  ;  nor  did  they, 
like  the  Alexandrians  and  Palestinians,  intermix  with  the 
Gentiles  around  them  ;  they  preserved  their  nationality  dis- 
tinct and  pure,  and  thus  for  a  long  series  of  years  they  lived 
in  peace  and  in  affluence.  But,  as  is  often  the  case,  an 
occurrence,  insignificant  in  itself,  led  to  important  and  fatal 


24 

results.  Two  orphan  brothers,  Assinai  and  Anilai,  both 
high-spirited  youths,  were  apprenticed  to  learn  the  weaver's 
trade,  and  one  day,  thinking  themselves  ill-treated  by  their 
master,  ran  away.  Not  knowing  where  to  go,  or  what  to  do 
for  their  support,  they  joined  a  band  of  bold  robbers  which 
infested  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Euphrates,  and  became 
their  captains.  They  even  built  a  fortress  and  became  so 
formidable  that  the  King  of  Parthia  sent  troops  to  subdue 
them,  but  these  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  The 
King  rather  admired  their  extraordinary  valor,  made  terms 
of  peace  with  them,  and  thinking  it  best  to  enlist  them  in  his 
service,  appointed  Assinai,  the  elder  brother,  as  governor  of 
an  independent  state  in  Mesopotamia.  Though  robbers, 
they  still  remained  Jews,  and  the  state  they  governed  was 
Jewish,  and  flourished  during  sixteen  years  ;  but  the 
younger  brother  married  a  heathen  woman,  and  being  up- 
braided for  this  by  his  brother  the  governor,  the  woman, 
fearing  that  she  might  be  obliged  to  leave  her  husband,  ad- 
ministered poison  to  her  brother-in-law,  and  consequently 
the  government  passed  into  the  hands  of  Anilai  the  younger. 
The  new  governor  was  quite  as  brave,  but  not  so  prudent  as 
his  deceased  brother.  He  attacked  some  of  the  surrounding 
territories,  was  first  victorious  and  then  was  defeated,  and 
fled  to  his  native  city  Nehardea.  The  Babylonians  pursued 
and  captured  Anilai,  and  he  and  his  whole  band  were 
routed  and  slain.  But,  not  satisfied  with  this,  the  populace, 
exasperated  against  the  Jews  because  of  Anilai  and  the 
depredations  formerly  committed  by  the  brothers,  began  a 
general  attack  on  the  peaceful  Jews  all  over  the  country, 
and  many  thousands  of  them  suffered  persecution  and  death, 
attended  with  the  usual  cruelties  practised  by  the  heathen 
upon  their  conquered  enemies,  of  which  we  had  an  example 
in  the  preceding  paragraph. 


AGRIPPA  II.  THE  ZEALOTS.  INTERNAL  DISTURBANCES. 
We  now  return  to  Judea  to  learn  of  Agrippa's  successor, 
and  the  general  state  of  affairs  in  that  country.  We  said 
before  that,  when  Agrippa  I.  died,  he  left  a  son  too  young 
to  succeed  him,  and  that  consequently  the  administration 
of  affairs  was  left  to  a  Roman  governor.  This  state  of 
things  continued  for  a  number  of  years  under  the  magistracy 
of  three  successive  governors.  In  the  mean  time  Agrippa's 
brother,  Herod  II.,  was  appointed  by  Claudius  over  the 
temple  and  the  treasury,  and  with  power  to  appoint  high- 
priests.  As  he  was  not  invested  with  any  political  or  royal 
authority,  he  cannot  properly  be  ranked  among  the  kings  of 
the  Herodian  dynasty.  After-  his  death,  Agrippa  II.,  son  of 
Agrippa  I.,  was  made  king  of  Judea.  But  this  last  king  of 
the  Jews  had  not  much  of  a  Jewish  heart,  did  not  share 
the  sentiments  of  his  subjects,  and  was  indifferent  to  their 
interests.  He  had  long  resided  at  Rome,  was  educated  and 
had  formed  connections  there,  and  was  consequently  more 
of  a  Roman  than  a  Jew.  In  his  time  the  condition  of  the 
Jews  in  Jerusalem  and  in  all  Judea  grew  worse  and  worse. 
Sanguinary  conflicts  between  the  Jews  on  one  side,  and  the 
Roman  and  Syro-Greek  soldiers  on  the  other,  became  the 
order  of  the  day,  and  the  final  ruin  of  Judea  was  fast 
approaching.  What  was  still  worse,  the  Jews  among  them- 
selves were  not  united  in  purpose.  A  political  faction,  who 
assumed  the  appellation  of  Zealots,  and  whose  deep  hatred 
of  the  Romans  would  not  allow  them  to  submit  in  the  least 
to  the  foreign  yoke,  endeavored  to  their  utmost  to  dissemi- 
nate the  opinion  that  Jews  ought  not  to  submit  to  any  rule 
but  the  divine,  and  ought  to  oppose  the  enemy  at  all  haz- 
ards and  at  all  sacrifice  of  property,  family,  and  life ;  while 
others  of  more  moderate  temperament  advised  submission 
to  the  inevitable,  and  others  again  were  anxious  to  purchase 
peace  at  any  cost.  Thus  the  spirit  of  discontentment 


26 

spread,  and  the  utmost  agitation  prevailed  in  Jerusalem. 
While  such  was  the  state  of  the  city,  the  country  was  not 
much  more  secure.  Robbers  multiplied  and  grew  bolder, 
and  no  man's  life  or  property  was  secure.  Among  those 
who  were  set  to  regulate  public  affairs,  there  was  no  patriot- 
ism, no  national  sentiment,  each  of  them  endeavored  only 
to  dominate,  and  enrich  himself,  regardless  of  all  probity 
and  justice.  The  Judeans  had  to  submit  even  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  an  unprincipled  tyrannical  man,  by  name 
Felix,  who  was  born  a  slave,  associated  with  robbers  and 
assassins,  and  exercised  the  authority  of  a  king  by  con- 
sequence of  his  appointment.  Also  in  the  provinces  adjoin 
ing  Judea,  a  war  of  extermination  raged,  and  the  horrid 
retaliation  which  the  Jews  inflicted  on  their  enemies  when- 
ever they  proved  the  stronger  party,  tended  only  to  fan  the 
flame  of  discord  and  anarchy  which  prevailed.  I  might 
devote  many  pages  to  a  description  of  the  events  which  took 
place  during  the  short  reign  of  Agrippa  II.,  which,  though 
in  many  instances  heart-rending,  would  yet  be  interesting 
and  instructive,  but  they  are  too  numerous  and  too  com- 
plicated to  find  a  place  in  this  concise  narrative.  I  will, 
therefore,  hasten  to  the  close  of  this  first  epoch  of  our 
history,  giving  you  in  but  a  few  short  items  the  succession 
of  events  which  led  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  You 
will  know  from  the  history  of  Rome,  which  I  suppose  you 
are  studying,  that  after  the  death  of  Claudius  there  were  yet 
four  more  emperors  of  Rome  before  Vespasian  ascended 
the  throne.  These  men  were  all  so  extremely  wicked  and 
foolish  that  it  is  not  worth  while  here  to  mention  their 
names  ;  and  yet  to  the  rule  of  such  men,  "  tyrants,  madmen, 
fools,  and  monsters,  the  most  detestable  the  world  has  ever 
seen"  (as  Dr.  Raphall  justly  calls  them),  to  the  arbitrary 
will  of  these  the  Jewish  nation  and  the  whole  Roman  empire 
were  subject. 


REVOLT  OF  THE  JEWS  AGAINST  ROME.  CESTIUS  DEFEATED. 
The  Jews,  driven  to  despair  by  the  unendurable  oppres- 
sion they  had  suffered  for  so  many  years,  at  last  determined 
to  unite  their  forces  and  to  risk  everything  for  the  sake  of 
gaining  their  independence.  It  certainly  was  a  desperate 
conclusion  they  had  come  to,  for  to  declare  war  against 
Rome  was  to  defy  the  whole  force  of  the  civilized  world. 
v  But  what  will  man  not  do  when  driven  to  mad  despair  by 
such  grinding  tyranny  !  And  we  must  not  forget  that  it  was 
not  so  much  political  independence  they  were  striving  for  ; 
but  their  religion,  which  was  to  them  dearer  than  life,  was 
at  stake,  and  that  had  been  most  wantonly  trampled  upon 
by  their  enemies.  The  Jews,  therefore,  manfully  resolved 
to  conquer  or  die.  They  refused  henceforth  to  pay  tribute 
to  Rome,  declared  themselves  openly  against  their  governor, 
and  demanded  his  immediate  withdrawal.  Agrippa  ad- 
dressed the  multitude  and  made  some  efforts  to  calm  their  rage, 
showing  them  the  rashness  of  defying  the  power  of  Rome, 
and  was  enabled  for  awhile  to  arrest  their  fury  ;  but,  when  he 
attempted  to  persuade  the  people  to  render  the  usual  alle- 
giance to  the  present  governor  until  another  should  be  sent 
by  the  emperor,  their  indignation  was  aroused  to  its  highest 
pitch,  they  denounced  also  their  king  as  treacherous  to 
their  cause,  assailed  him  first  with  insulting  language,  then 
with  stones,  and  he  was  obliged  to  flee  from  the  city.  While 
the  people  of  Jerusalem  were  thus  preparing  themselves  for 
defensive  and  offensive  warfare,  Cestius  Gallus,  governor  of 
Syria,  hearing  of  the  revolutionary  proceedings  going  on 
in  Jerusalem,  gathered  his  troops  to  bring  the  turbulent 
Jews  to  subjection.  The  Zealots,  whose  numbers  had  now 
increased  to  immense  proportions,  prepared  to  meet  the  in- 
vader, and  disregarding  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath,  armed 
themselves  with  undaunted  energy  as  well  as  weapons. 
Cestius  halted  at  about  a  mile  off  the  city,  expecting  that 


28 

the  very  appearance  of  his  army  of  30,000  strong  would 
overawe  the  Jews  into  quiet  submission.  But  the  Zealots 
attacked  the  adversary  with  such  vigor  that  they  slew  five 
hundred  of  them,  losing  but  twenty-three,  and  returned 
home  laden  with  rich  booty.  Three  days  later,  Cestius 
made  another  advance  on  Jerusalem  and  burned  some  of 
the  suburbs.  For  five  days  the  Romans  made  various  as- 
saults, while  the  Jews  defended  themselves  with  the  most 
resolute  valor,  till  at  length  the  enemy  were  forced  to 
retreit.  After  a  few  more  similar  combats,  Cestius  with- 
drew his  troops.  The  insurgents  had  been  all  the  while  in 
dreadful  consternation  and  were  almost  ready  to  surrender, 
but  when  they  saw  the  enemy  continue  to  retire,  they 
gained  new  courage,  sallied  forth  from  the  city,  and  boldly 
pursued  the  enemy  with  the  utmost  rapidity,  and  did  not 
cease  until  they  had  routed  the  whole  army  of  the  Romans. 
With  hymns  of  victory,  they  re-entered  the  capital,  having 
suffered  hardly  any  loss  and  having  slain  of  the  Romans 
5,300  foot  and  380  horse,  while  many  instruments  of  war 
and  an  immense  spoil  fell  into  their  hands.  The  Romans 
had  since  long  not  suffered  so  disgraceful  a  defeat  ;  and  the 
sting  was  more  keenly  felt  since  it  was  inflicted,  not  by  a 
powerful  adversary  looked  upon  as  an  equal,  but  by  a  peo- 
ple who  had  long  and  patiently  endured  the  Roman  yoke 
and  humbly  submitted  to  the  imperial  will. 

VESPASIAN    SENT    TO    SUBDUE    THE   JUDEANS.     GALILEE 

CONQUERED. 

The  stubborn  defence  of  the  Jews  against  the  attacks  of 
Cestius  and  the  subsequent  defeat  of  the  latter's  army  was 
tantamount  to  a  declaration  of  war,  and  Judea  was  now  in 
open  rebellion  against  Rome.  This  was  in  the  year  66  of 
the  common  era.  Nero  was  then  the  emperor,  and,  learn- 
ing with  astonishment  the  shameful  defeat  of  his  troops 
under  Cestius,  began  to  make  preparations  for  the  entire 


29 

subjection  of  the  insurgents.  He  appointed  Vespasian,  the 
ablest  general  in  the  empire,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  that  was  to  subdue  Judea,  and  Titus,  Vespasian's 
eldest  son,  who  was  then  with  his  father  at  Athens,  was 
made  his  lieutenant.  Vespasian  sent  his  son  to  Alexandria 
to  bring  two  legions  to  his  aid,  while  he  himself  went  to 
Syria  to  collect  all  the  Roman  troops  from  the  neighboring 
tributary  kings.  When  the  two  generals,  father  and  son, 
had  collected  an  army  of  nearly  100,000,  they  marched 
toward  Galilee,  there  to  commence  operations.  Joseph,  son 
Mathias,  better  known  as  Josephus,  and  of  whom  you  will 
hear  more  hereafter,  was  intrusted  by  the  Jews  with  the 
defense  of  Galilee.  This  was  a  very  fertile  country,  and 
its  inhabitants,  a  bold,  hardy,  and  warlike  race,  were  very 
numerous:  Its  fortifications  also  were  many  and  of  immense 
strength,  and  Josephus,  who  had  also  about  100,000  under 
his  command,  and  being  possessed  of  very  eminent  military 
talents,  might  have  successfully  defended  the  province  in- 
trusted to  his  charge,  but  he  seemed  to  be  little  inclined  to 
wage  war  with  so  powerful  an  opponent,  and  more  in  favor 
of  an  amicable  settlement  between  his  people  and  the  Ro- 
mans. At  all  events,  Vespasian  made  fearful  inroads  into 
Galilee,  took  city  after  city,  all  of  which,  however,  were  de- 
fended by  the  besieged  with  most  resolute  courage,  but  had 
to  yield  to  superior  forces  and  numbers.  Josephus  himself, 
finding  further  defense  impossible,  was  base  enough  to 
renounce  his  party,  forsake  his  people  and  his  faith,  and 
enter  into  a  bond  of  friendship  with  Vespasian.  Having 
conquered  the  whole  of  Galilee,  Vespasian  allowed  his 
troops  to  recover  from  the  fatigues  and  hard  struggles  they 
had  undergone ;  and  towards  the  end  of  February,  68, 
entered  on  his  second  campaign.  In  the  mean  time  the 
Judeans  were  very  active  in  preparing  their  defense  of 
Jerusalem,  but  unfortunately  they  were  devoured  by  intes- 
tine strife  to  such  an  alarming  extent  that  the  enemy 


3° 

thought  it  advisable  to  let  them  alone,  as  they  among  them- 
selves were  doing  a  good  deal  of  the  work  of  destruction  for 
him.  About  the  middle  of  June,  68,  Vespasian  found  him- 
self at  Caesarea,  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
superintending  the  construction  of  powerful  battering  rams 
and  other  engines  of  war  for  an  attack  on  the  capital,  when 
the  death  of  Nero  was  announced  to  him.  The  conflagra- 
tion of  Rome,  Nero's  suicide,  and  the  assassination  of  two 
other  emperors  are  events  which  do  not  properly  belong  to 
our  history,  and  were  of  no  material  influence  thereon. 
Passing  over,  therefore,  the  transient  reigns  of  Galba,  Otho, 
and  Vitellius,  we  find  Vespasian  in  possession  of  the  throne 
of  the  Roman  empire  and  Titus  in  command  of  the  army 
in  Judea. 

TITUS'  ADVANCE   ON    JERUSALEM.     DESCRIPTION  OF    THE 
CITY  AND  TEMPLE. 

Political  troubles  at  the  seat  of  government  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  Roman  empire  had  delayed  the  march  on 
'Jerusalem  for  nearly  twelve  months,  and  it  was  not  resumed 
until  the  year  70.  In  the  spring  of  that  year,  Titus,  with 
an  army  of  80,000,  undertook  in  good  earnest  the  long 
projected  plan  of  demolishing  the  Jewish  capital  and  Tem- 
ple, at  once  the  pride  and  the  stronghold  of  the  nation. 
But  he  found  it  by  no  means  an  easy  task.  That  you  may 
have  an  idea  of  the  difficulties  the  enemy  had  to  overcome, 
let  me  give  you  a  short,  and  of  course  but  a  superficial  de- 
scription of  Jerusalem  and  its  proud  Temple.  Jerusalem 
was  built  on  three  hills  ;  it  was  some  five  miles  in  circum- 
ference ;  its  inhabitants  may  have  been  half  a  million  or 
more.  It  was  fortified  with  three  walls,  all  of  immense 
strength  and  thickness  ;  but  these  walls  were  not  exactly 
one  inside  the  other  all  around  the  city,  each  one  defended 
a  separate  quarter  of  the  town  and  required  a  separate  siege 
and  attack  before  the  whole  could  be  taken.  The  first  or 


outer  wall  was  built  of  solid  stones  thirty-five  feet  long  and 
the  wall  was  seventeen  and  a  half  feet  thick ;  on  its  top 
were  battlements  three  and  a  half  feet  and  pinnacles  five 
and  three  quarters,  making  together  a  height  of  nearly 
forty-five  feet.  The  inner  walls  were  nearly  similar  to  the 
one  just  described.  These  walls  were  mounted  respectively 
with  sixty,  fourteen,  and  eighty  towers  of  the  same  solid 
masonry,  from  which  the  besieged  could  defend  themselves 
against  their  assailants.  The  most  magnificent  of  all  these 
towers  was  called  Psephina,  opposite  to  which  Titus  en- 
camped. It  was  octagon,  I22-J  feet  high,  commanding  a 
noble  view  of  the  country  and  of  the  sea  around  it.  Each 
tower  had  a  different  name,  after  some  one  beloved  or 
esteemed  by  the  monarch  who  built  it.  They  were 
differently  constructed,  some  defended  by  breastworks  and 
bulwarks,  divided  in  lofty  chambers  luxuriously  fitted  up, 
provided  with  baths  and  large  tanks  above  to  receive  rain- 
water. These  lofty  towers  appeared  still  higher  from  their 
situation  on  a  steep  hill.  In  addition  to  these  regular 
defenses,  there  were  several  detached  castles  or  fortresses 
of  great  strength,  of  which  the  Antonia  was  the  most  con- 
siderable. On  one  of  the  hills,  Mt.  Zion,  stood  the  king's 
palace  or  one  of  the  palaces,  surrounded  by  a  wall  thirty- 
five  feet  high,  adorned  by  towers  at  equal  distances,  and  by 
spacious  barrack-rooms  with  a  hundred  beds  in  each.  It 
was  paved  with  every  variety  of  -rare  marble  ;  timbers  of 
unequalled  strength  and  workmanship  supported  the 
roofs.  The  chambers  were  countless,  adorned  with  all 
kinds  of  figures,  the  richest  furniture,  and  vessels  of  gold 
and  silver.  There  were  numerous  cloisters  with  columns 
of  different  orders,  the  squares  within  of  beautiful  ver- 
dure ;  around  were  groves  and  avenues  with  fountains  and 
tanks,  and  bronze  statues  pouring  out  the  water.  The 
fortress  Antonia  stood  alone  on  a  high  and  precipitous  rock 


32 

near  ninety  feet  high,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
Temple.  The  whole  face  of  the  rock  was  fronted  with 
smooth  stone  for  ornament,  and  so  slippery  as  to  make 
an  ascent  impracticable.  The  fortress  was  seventy  feet  high, 
and  had  every  luxury  and  convenience  of  a  sumptuous 
palace,  or  even  of  a  city  ;  spacious  halls,  courts,  and  baths. 
It  appeared  like  a  vast  square  tower,  with  four  other  towers 
at  the  corners,  three  of  them  between  eighty  and  ninety 
feet  high.  Towering  above  the  whole  city  was  the  Temple, 
a  fortress  in  itself,  and  equal  in  strength  to  any  at  that  time 
known.  It  covered  a  square  of  a  furlong  (one-eighth  mile) 
each  side.  The  hill  on  which  it  stood  had  been  built  up 
on  the  sides  with  perpendicular  walls  in  no  part  lower 
than  525  feet ;  some  of  these  stones  were  seventy  feet 
square.  Thus  Jerusalem  was  a  mass  of  fortifications,  an  ac- 
cumulation of  strength  and  beauty,  and  might  have  remained 
inaccessible  to  the  enemy,  had  its  possessors  been  of  one 
mind,  and  unanimously  defended  it.  The  supply  of  water 
from  natural  springs  was  abundant,  and  stores  of  provisions 
there  were  sufficient  to  last  for  years,  but  these  were  mostly 
destroyed  by  the  inhabitants  while  they  quarreled  and 
fought  among  themselves.  I  cannot  begin  to  describe 
the  magnificence  of  the  interior  of  the  Temple,  its  divisions, 
its  courts,  its  gates,  and  its  furniture.  It  would  be  injustice 
to  say  a  few  words  about  it,  you  must  read  that  in  a  larger 
book  than  this.  Even  the  roof  of  the  Temple  was  set  all 
over  with  sharp  golden  spikes  to  prevent  the  birds  from 
nestling  and  defiling  it.  At  a  distance,  the  whole  structure 
looked  literally  like  "a  mount  of  snow  fretted  with  golden 
pinnacles,"  and  when  the  sun  arose  above  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  which  it  directly  faced,  it  was  impossible,  even  for  a 
Roman,  not  to  be  struck  with  wonder,  or  even  for  Titus 
not  to  betray  emotion.  Yet  this  was  the  city  which  in 
a  few  months  was  to  lie  a  heap  of  undistinguishable  ruins, 


33 

and  the  Temple  itself,  which  seemed  built  for  eternity,  not 
"to  have  one  stone  left  upon  another."* 

THE  ATTACK  ON  JERUSALEM.     HORRIBLE  SCENES  IN  THE 
CITY.     FINAL  DETRUCTION. 

The  Roman  legions  made  their  approach  on  Jerusalem 
from  the  North,  where  the  resistance  was  least  formidable, 
and  before  making  an  assault,*Titus  himself,  with  an  escort 
of  600  horse,  came  close  to  the  city  to  reconnoitre.  Finding 
the  gates  closed  and  not  a  man  on  the  wall,  not  even  a 
sentinel,  he  apprehended  no  immediate  danger,  and  the 
squadron  proceeded  more  closely,  turning  towards  the  high 
tower  of  Psephina  ;  when  all  of  a  sudden  the  gates  flew 
open,  and  a  multitude  of  soldiers  rushed  upon  the  aston- 
ished cavalry,  effectually  cutting  off  Titus  with  a  few  follow- 
ers from  the  rest  of  his  escort.  This  was  a  critical 
^moment.  The  general  could  not  proceed,  nor  turn  back 
without  facing  the  enemy,  and  almost  had  the  chief  of  the 
Roman  army  fallen  a  prize  into  the  hands  of  the  beleaguered 
Jews.  But  it  seems  they  were  so  intoxicated  with  their 
momentary  success  as  to  be  incapable  of  taking  advantage 
of  their  good  fortune ;  and  Titus,  with  redoubled  vigor  and 
by  the  assistance  of  his  followers,  cut  his  way  through  and 
escaped.  So  trifling  a  circumstance  could  not  in  the  least 
deter  the  Roman  chief,  though  it  taught  him  a  lesson  of 
caution.  The  next  day  the  work  on  the  embankments  was 
begun  and  soon  the  enormous  battering  rams  appeared 
which  were  to  play  on  the  wall  ;  but  no  sooner  were  they 
within  bow-shot  than  the  besieged  harassed  the  men  with 
all  sorts  of  missiles,  sometimes  sallying  out  in  considerable 
numbers  and  damaging  in  a  few  hours  what  the  Romans 
had  labored  days  to  accomplish.  Night  and  day  the 
Romans  toiled  ;  night  and  day,  by  stratagem  and  force,  the 

*  Much  of  this  description  is  taken  verbatim  from  Milman's  History. 


34 

Jews  impeded  their  progress.  At  last  one  tower  came  down. 
The  terrible  engines  continued  their  destructive  work  and 
the  first  wall  began  to  totter.  The  Jews  retired  to  the 
second,  and  after  the  most  reckless  defence  and  considera- 
ble damage  to  the  assailants,  this  also  had  to  yield.  It  was 
re-taken  from  the  Romans,  but  again  lost.  The  Jews  still 
kept  up  their  courage,  persevered  resolutely,  and  fought 
desperately;  but,  alas!  the  destruction  from  within  was 
worse  than  that  from  without.  Provisions  were  short,  and 
the  horrible  famine  began  its  ravages ;  there  was  nothing 
more  to  eat;  men  ate  chopped  straw,  gnawed  their  belts, 
their  shoes.  The  most  delicate  females,  accustomed  to 
abundance  and  luxury,  prowled  about  the  streets,  mad  with 
hunger.  The  famine  had  steeled  every  heart,  extinguished 
even  parental  and  filial  affection.  Brothers  and  sisters, 
parents  and  children,  snatched  from  one  another  the  most 
miserable  morsel  ;  and,  most  horrible  to  relate,  one  woman, 
Miriam,  daughter  of  Eleazar,  possessed  of  wealth  which 
availed  her  nothing,  and  finding  no  one  merciful  enough  to 
put-an  end  to  her  misery,  wildly  resolved  to  slay  her  own 
infant,  cook  it,  and  consume  part  of  it.  The  story  reached 
the  Roman  camp  and  touched  the  stoutest  heart.  Titus 
then  used  every  means  to  induce  the  people  to  surrender, 
and  employed  Josephus  to  address  his  countrymen  and 
convince  them  of  the  impossibility  of  holding  out,  but  he 
had  forfeited  all  influence  upon  them  by  his  base  desertion. 
Exhausted  with  the  toil  of  so  many  weeks  and  months  of 
constant  battle,  Titus  withdrew  his  troops  to  allow  them 
a  little  rest,  and  give  the  besieged  time  to  consider  a 
capitulation,  but  they  remained  obstinate  and  unyielding. 
In  the  meanwhile  the  famine  increased,  and  pestilence  set 
in.  The  houses  were  full  of  dying  women  and  children,  the 
streets  with  men  gasping  out  their  last  breath. %  The  corpses 
remained  unburied,  and  the  stench  of  the  putrid  bodies 
affected  even  the  Romans  outside  ;  yet  the  most  horrible 


35 

sufferings,  the  most  appalling  scenes  could  not  move  the 
cruel  and  stubborn  Zealots  to  yield  their  point.  The 
stately  Temple  still  stood  defiantly  before  the  enemy;  the 
Jews  said  it  could  not  be  taken,  for  it  was  the  Temple  of  God. 
But  Providence  had  otherwise  decreed.  Wall  after  wall, 
and  fortress  after  fortress  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 
The  fighting  had  been  carried  on  most  desperately  for  more 
than  five  months,  day  and  night,  and  every  inch  of  ground 
the  Romans  gained  cost  streams  of  blood.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  the  Jews  fought  with  as  much  bravery  and 
skill  as  was  ever  displayed  by  any  nation  in  any  battle. 
Nearly  a  million  and  a  half  of  human  lives  had  been 
sacrificed.  At  last,  on  the  fatal  loth  of  Ab,  also  the  roth  of 
August,  of  the  year  70,  the  Romans  entered  the  precincts 
of  the  Temple,  which  Titus  endeavored  to  spare  from 
destruction;  but  a  soldier,  without  orders,  threw  a  fire-brand 
into  one  of  the  side  chambers,  and  soon  the  flames  spread 
all  over  the  edifice.  The  Romans  were  struck  with  wonder 
at  the  splendor  they  beheld;  everything  around  them  was 
radiant  with  gold,  and  the  excited  soldiers  began  to  plunder 
with  insatiable  vengeance.  The  treasures  found  in  Jerusa- 
lem were  so  great  that  gold  fell  in  Syria  to  one-half  its 
value.  The  fertile  lands  of  Judea  were  disposed  of,  and 
many  thousands  of  the  captives  were  sold  into  slavery  to 
fill  the  treasury  of  the  Roman  emperor.  Thus  fell  the 
metropolis  of  Palestine,  and  with  that  event  ceased  the 
nationality  of  the  Jewish  people.  But  the  consuming 
fire  which  destroyed  the  Temple  became  the  fire  of  a  new 
inspiration  for  the  Jewish  people,  and  the  storms  which 
scattered  them  to  all  parts  of  the  earth  became  the  fore- 
runners of  anew  creation,  the  speedy  development  of  which 
became  a  blessing  to  all  the  world. 


BIOGRAPHY  OF  PHILO  AND  JOSEPHUS. 
The  young  student  may  ask  perhaps  whence  we  derive  all 
this  historical  information  ;  how  we  know  all  these  particu- 
lars, of  which  they  find  nothing  in  their  books  or  general 
history.     The  answer  to  these  questions  is,  that  the  works  of 
several  historians  who  lived  at  the  time  those  events  took 
place,  or  shortly  afterwards,  have  been  preserved  to  us.    Such 
are  Dion  Cassius,  Strabo,  and  Tacitus ;  but  our  information 
is  derived  chiefly  from  the  writings  of  two  Jewish  historians, 
Philo  and  Josephus,  of  whom  we  will  here  give  a  short  bio- 
graphical description.     Philo  Judaeus  was  an  Alexandrian 
by  birth,  of  priestly  descent,  born  of  wealthy  parents,  and  con- 
nected with  the   most    influential  of  his    countrymen  ;  his 
brother  being  one  of  the  chief  officers  or  ministers  of  Egypt. 
He  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with  Grecian  literature  and 
philosophy,  as  well  as  with  the  tenets  of  his  religion,  and  his 
character  was  that  of  deep  moral  earnestness,  with  a  strong 
desire  to  seek  and  know  the  truth,  and  for  this  purpose  he 
often  retired  to  the  wilderness  to  lead  a  more  contemplative 
life.     The  partiality  which  he  felt  for  the  teachings  of  Plato 
seems  to  have  caused  much  confusion  in  his  mind,  through 
his  attempts  to  amalgamate  the  Platonic  philosophy  with  the 
Mosaic  laws,  giving  to  the  latter  a  mystical  interpretation 
and  thus  reconcile  the  two  systems.     To  retain  the  truths 
of  Platonism  in  Judaism,  to  vindicate  them  and  elicit  them 
from  the  Mosaic  books,  was  the  principal  task  which  Philo 
set  himself,  and  seems  to  be  the  object  of  most  of  his  writ- 
ings, which  were  numerous.    We  know  Philo  more  as  a  phil- 
osopher, a  speculator  in  mysticism,  than  as   an  historian  ; 
but  as  the  things  which  he  recorded  were  the  events  of  his 
own  time,  and  as,  moreover,  his  reputation  is  not  tarnished 
by  the  spot  of  double-dealing,  treachery,  and  self-aggrand- 
izement, such  as  attach  to  the  character  of  Josephus,  whose 
statements  often  differ  materially  from  those  Philo,  the  his- 


torical  information  we  have  from  him  is  of  great  importance. 
Cotemporary  with  Philo  and  in  the  same  city  lived  Apiori, 
also  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  author  of  a  history  of 
Egypt,  but  a  great  enemy  of  the  Jews.  Philo  endeavored 
to  defend  his  brethren  against  the  attacks  of  this  enemy ;  and 
when  the  citizens  of  Alexandria  lodged  a  complaint  with 
the  emperor  Caligula  against  the  Jews  residing  there,  charg- 
ing them  with  disaffection  to  the  Roman  sovereignty,  they 
sent  Apion  to  Rome  as  their  envoy,  and  Philo  was  selected 
on  the  part  of  the  accused  to  defend  their  cause.  This  mis- 
•  sion  was  attended  with  considerable  danger,  and  Philo  nar- 
rowly escaped  with  his  life,  not  being  permitted  even  to 
speak  on  the  subject  before  the  prejudiced  imbecile  mon- 
arch. Various  editions  of  Philo's  works  are  extant,  and  es- 
teemed on  account  of  their  antiquity  and  intrinsic  worth. 

Josephus,  son  of  Mathias,  was  descended  paternally  from 
a  priestly  family,  and  by  his  mother's  side  from  the  Asmo- 
neans,  and  was  born  at  Jerusalem  A.C.  37,  when  Caligula 
was  emperor.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  attached  himself  to 
the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  and  for  three  years  led  a  studious 
and  ascetic  life,  and  then  became  a  zealous  member  of  the 
sect  of  Pharisees.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  visited  Rome, 
gained  admission  and  influence  with  the  empress,  and  on  his 
return  to  Judea  was  made  governor  of  upper  and  lower  Gal- 
ilee, in  which  capacity  he  bravely  defended  Jotapata  against 
Vespasian.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  however  ;  but  his  life 
was  spared  at  the  intercession  of  Titus,  to  whom  he  predicted 
that  he  would  become  Roman  emperor,  and  who  became  his 
friend  and  patron.  Josephus  was  possessed  of  eminent  abil- 
ities, and  bears  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator,  a  soldier,  and 
a  statesman,  but  especially  as  an  historian  he  is  famous  and 
of  some  authority.  During  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the 
Romans,  Josephus  acted  a  very  important  part.  Having  at 
first  defended  his  country  with  all  the  ability  of  an  accom- 
plished general,  afterwards,  seeing  the  impossibility  of  hold- 


ing  out  against  so  powerful  an  enemy,  he  joined  the  peace 
faction  and  used  all  his  influence  and  oratorical  powers  to 
induce  the  Jews  to  make  terms  with  the  Romans,  rather  than 
sacrifice  their  country  and  Temple,  but  the  Jews  would  never 
listen  to  such  propositions.  Finding  at  last  that  all  his 
efforts  at  reconciliation  were  of  no  avail,  Josephus  forsook 
his  own  people,  and  with  many  others  who  shared  his  views 
went  over  to  the  Romans,  for  which  base  act  he  is  justly  de- 
nounced as  a  traitor.  He  lived  afterwards  in  Rome  in  high 
favor  with  the  emperor,  who  conferred  on  him  a  very  con- 
siderable portion  of  land  and  great  honors,  and  pr rmission 
to  assume  the  imperial  name  "  Flavius  "  Josephus.  At  Rome 
he  first  wrote  the  "  History  of  the  Jewish  Wars  "  in  the 
Syro-Chaldaic  language,  which  was  the  vernacular  of  Pales- 
tine, and  afterwards  translated  the  work  into  Greek,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  western  Jews  and  of  the  Romans.  Many 
years  afterwards  he  wrote  his  great  work  "  The  Jewish 
Antiquities,"  two  books  against  Apion  in  defense  of  his  own 
people,  besides  other  works,  all  written  in  elegant  pure  Greek. 
The  time  of  his  death  is  uncertain.  History  loses  sight  of 
him  in  his  $6th  or  57th  year. 


39 


SECOND   PERIOD. 


FROM  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  SECOND 
TEMPLE  TO  THE  TIME  OF  THE  SPANISH 
INQUISITION. 

REVIVAL  OF  THE  JEWS   UNDER   RABBINICAL  AUTHORITY. 

THEY  REVOLT  AGAIN,  AND  ARE  SUBDUED  BY  HADRIAN. 
i 

After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  dispersion  of 
the  Jews,  it  might  be  supposed  that  their  national  integrity 
was  entirely  dissolved.  This,  however,  was  far  from  being 
the  case.  From  what  appears  on  the  records  of  general 
history,  and  in  the  opinion  of  eminent  literary  men,  the 
Jews  seem  to  be  an  inexhaustible  race,  which,  notwith- 
standing the  mighty  efforts  to  exterminate  them,  can  never 
be  destroyed.  Thus  we  find  that  the  Jews  ever  maintained 
their  unity  in  character,  in  customs,  in  language,  and  above 
all  in  religion.  Deprived  of  their  Temple,  they  established 
more  firmly  their  Synagogue,  which  was  at  once  a  place  for 
worship  and  for  the  study  of  the  law,  and  the  Rabbis,  or  the 
learned  in  the  law,  were  invested  with  supreme  authority  ; 
and  it  is  the  unwavering  attachment  of  the  Jews  to  their 
law  and  their  religion  which  has  ever  enabled  them  to 
hold  together  as  one  body.  Milman,  the  historian,  justly 
observes,  u  Perpetually  plundered,  yet  always  wealthy,  mas- 
sacred by  thousands,  yet  springing  up  again  from  their 
undying  stock,  the  Jews  appear  at  all  times  and  in  all 
regions  ;  their  perpetuity,  their  national  immortality,  is  at 
once  the  most  curious  problem  to  the  political  inquirer,  to 
the  religious  man  a  subject  of  profound  and  awful  admira- 
tion." 


40 

Though  the  political  existence  of  the  Jews  was  now 
annihilated,  and  themselves  dispersed  all  over  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Europe,  they  soon  revived  again  under  the  form  of  two 
separate  communities,  presided  over  by  their  spiritual  lead- 
ers. The  one  on  the  West  of  the  Euphrates,  who  still  in- 
habited Palestine,  was  under  the  leadership  of  the  "  Patri- 
arch of  the  West,"  and  included  all  Jews  dwelling  in  the 
Roman  Empire;  the  other  in  Mesopotamia,  under  the  "Prince 
of  the  Captivity,"  to  whom  all  eastern  Jews  paid  allegiance; 
and  from  that  time  dates  Rabbinism  as  an  acknowledged 
authority,  although  the  introduction  of  traditional  laws  and 
interpretations  appears  to  have  begun  in  the  time  of  Simon 
the  Maccabee,  and  gradually  attained  its  growth  during  the 
whole  period  of  the  Second  Temple.  Of  the  offices  and 
powers  of  these  rabbinical  leaders  we  will  speak  more  fully 
hereafter.  For  a  short  period,  during  the  reigns  of  the 
emperors  Domitian  and  Nerva,  the  Jews  remained  tranquil 
and  enjoyed  the  blessings  of  peace  under  the  guidance  of 
their  spiritual  leaders  ;  but  under  the  reign  of  Trajan,  the 
united  communites  of  Babylon,  Egypt,  Cyrene,  and  Judea 
rose  again  in  open  rebellion,  at  first  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, but  after  an  obstinate  struggle  and  an  enormous  loss  of 
life,  estimated  at  600,000,  they  were  finally  subdued  and 
afterwards  most  cruelly  oppressed  by  the  emperor  Hadrian. 
In  order  to  remove  forever  all  hopes  of  a  restoration  of  the 
Jewish  kingdom,  Hadrian  founded  a  new  city  and  a  colony 
of  Romans  on  the  site  of  Jerusalem,  and  a  temple  dedicated 
to  Jupiter  on  the  spot  where  the  Jewish  Temple  had  stood. 
The  city  was  called  ^Elia  Capitolina.  The  Jews  were  for- 
bidden to  approach  the  city,  and  in  order  to  keep  them 
away,  the  image  of  a  swine  was  placed  over  the  gate  leading 
to  Bethlehem.  The  study  of  the  law,  to  which  the  Jews 
now  clung  as  their  greatest  treasure,  their  only  hope,  was 
interdicted;  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  and,  in  short, 
every  religious  observance  was  strictly  forbidden  them,  and 


the  Jewish  race  seemed,  indeed,  in  danger  of  becoming 
extinct;  and  in  that  dark  period  they  had  no  other  hope 
but  that  the  expected  Messiah  would  make  his  appearance 
to  deliver  them. 

BARCOCHAB'S   MESSIAHSHIP. 

The  prophecy  that  the  glory  of  the  Second  Temple  should 
surpass  that  of  the  first  (Hag.  ii.  9)  had  not  been  verified, 
except  as  to  its  external  grandeur.  Some  very  important 
parts  were  wanting.  The  high-priest  wore  no  breast-plate, 
the  oracle  was  there  no  more,  the  priests  were  not  conse- 
crated as  heretofore,  the  nation  had  lost  its  independence, 
and  the  hope  that  Israel  would  at  some  time  or  other  be 
restored  to  its  former  greatness  became,  and  has  been  to 
this  day,  one  of  our  principal  points  of  faith.  The  belief 
that  the  Messiah,  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  David,  would 
again  redeem  them,  had  now  become  deeply  rooted  in  the 
hearts  of  all  Israel,*  and  no  wonder  that  in  such  time  of 
tribulation  any  one  bold  enough  to  declare  himself  to  be 
that  deliverer  would  soon  find  a  number  of  adherents 
among  the  weak-minded  who  had  nothing  else  to  hope  for. 
Such  a  bold  impostor  indeed  appeared  now  under  the 
assumed  name  of  Barcochab  (Son  of  the  Star),  who  pre- 
tended to  be  the  new  redeemer  of  his  people.  Gradually 
he  succeeded  in  gaining  multitudes  of  people  on  his  side, 
and  they  rose  in  open  hostility  against  Hadrian.  They  suc- 
ceeded to  some  extent,  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
ruins  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Romans  suffered  considerable 
losses.  Barcochab  had  chosen  the  fortified  city  of  Either 

*  This  Messianic  idea  appears  to  have  originated*vith  the  Christian 
religion,  which,  in  its  earliest  stage,  was  nothing  but  a  Jewish  sect  ; 
and  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  neither  the  thought  of  a  per- 
sonal Messiah  nor  of  a  resurrection  was  prevalent  among  the  Jew  s  even 
in  the  latter  days  of  the  Second  Temple.  See  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Jud.  u.  s. 
S.,  pp.  309  and  397. 


42 

as  his  stronghold,  which  withstood  the  attack  of  the  enemy 
for  a  long  time.  At  last  Julius  Severus,  the  ablest  general 
the  Romans  then  had,  took  command  of  the  army,  and  the 
Jews  again  suffered  immense  losses.  Either  was  stormed, 
Barcochab  was  killed,  and  his  head  carried  in  triumph 
to  the  Roman  camp.  It  was  again  on  the  fatal  ninth  of  Ab, 
says  the  Talmud,  that  Either  fell  and  was  razed  to  the 
ground. 

THE  PATRIARCHATE.  THE  MISHNAH. 

After  the  death  of  Hadrian,  the  Jews  again  breathed  the 
air  of  freedom,  at  least  of  tolerance.  The  western  com- 
munity was  re-established  under  the  u  Patriarch,"  who  re- 
sided at  Tiberias,  whence  he  exercised  full  authority  over 
his  scattered  brethren,  who  sent  their  annual  contributions 
for  the  support  of  his  magnificent  court  ;  new  synagogues 
were  erected,  the  Sabbath  and  festivals  regularly  observed, 
numerous  schools  for  the  study  of  the  law  were  opened,  and 
rabbinical  authority  rose  to  great  power.  The  "  Prince  of 
the  Captivity"  in  Babylonia  also  had  his  splendid  court 
with  numerous  attendants,  surpassing  in  splendor  even  that 
of  his  rival  in  the  West.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
century,  Rabbi  Jehudah,  surnamed  Hanassi,  the  prince, 
and  Hakkadosh^  the  holy,  on  account  of  his  great  learning 
and  spotless  character,  occupied  the  dignified  position  of 
''Patriarch,"  and  it  was  he  who  compiled  the  code  of  tra- 
ditional laws  called  Mishnah.  This  compilation  consists  of 
traditionary  explanations  of  the  Mosaic  law,  said  to  have 
been  given  by  God  to  Moses,  who  taught  them  verbally  to 
the  elders,  and  these  again  to  the  prophets,  and  so  on  they 
were  preserved  from  one  generation  to  another  till  the  time 
of  R.  Jehudah  who,  in  order  to  preserve  the  traditions 
from  oblivion,  thought  it  necessary  to  commit  them  to 
writing. 

This  idea  that,  besides  the  revealed  Law,  God  had  im- 


43 

parted  to  Moses  additional  and  private  instructions  con- 
cerning the  precepts  and  their  proper  interpretation,  origi- 
nated, says  Dr.  Jost  (Allg.  Gesch.  d.  Isr.  Volkes,  Vol.  II., 
131  and  133),  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  And  as  this 
period — of  R.  Jehudah  Hakkadosh — is  distinguished  by  the 
labors  of  the  great  Roman  lawyers  in  the  formation  of  a  code 
of  jurisprudence  for  the  whole  empire,  it  seems  that  the 
Jews  desired  to  follow  the  example  of  their  masters  in  pro- 
viding themselves  with  a  code  regulating  every  act  of  their 
religious  and  civil  life.  (See  Jost  as  above,  and  Milrnan, 
Vol.  III.,  157,  Lond.  Ed.,  1859.) 

CONSTANTINE    ADOPTS    CHRISTIANITY. 

For  a  century  or  more,  the  Jews  appear  to  have  continued 
in  their  peaceful  and  prosperous  state  till  the  time  of 
Constantine  the  Great.  Outside  of  the  Jewish  communities, 
the  world  at  large  was  then  involved  in  paganism.  The 
Christian  religion  had  made  little  progress  yet  during  the 
first  three  ages  of  its  existence.  Jews  and  Christians  often 
came  in  furious  conflict,  and  by  turns  committed  horrible 
ravages  upon  one  another.  Still  the  Jews  enjoyed  the  right 
of  Roman  citizenship,  and  were  allowed  to  observe  their 
religion  unmolested.  Constantine  was  the  first  emperor 
who  embraced  Christianity  and  made  it  the  ruling  religion 
of  his  empire  ;  and  under  his  rule,  and  more  so  by  the 
increased  severity  of  the  laws  enacted  by  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Constantius,  the  spirit  of  hostility  against  the  Jews 
increased,  and  their  condition  became  gradually  worse  until 
the  accession  of  Julian  to  the  throne.  This  Julian,  the 
fourth  emperor  after  Constantine,  in  the  year  360  renounced 
Christianity  and  acknowledged  the  unity  of  God.  He  ad- 
dressed a  letter  to  the  patriarch,  calling  him  "my  brother," 
and  assuring  him  of  his  earnest  intentions  to  promote  the 
temporal  and  religious  interests  of  the  Jews  to  the  utmost  of 
his  power.  He  even  issued  an  edict  for  the  rebuilding  of 


44 

the  Temple  on  Mount  Moriah,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  to  its  former  splendor.  The  whole 
Jewish  world  was  in  commotion.  Materials  and  treasures 
poured  in  from  all  quarters  to  support  the  holy  work.  The 
Christians  looked  on  with  amazement  and  consternation, 
fearing  the  total  overthrow  of  their  religion,  but  the  early 
death  of  Julian,  who  fell  in  his  expedition  against  the 
Persians,  reversed  matters,  and  the  hopes  of  the  Jews  were 
totally  extinguished. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  TALMUD. 

Of  the  occurrences  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  we 
have  but  little  reliable  information  ;  at  least  no  events  of 
great  importance,  either  favorable  or  contrary,  seem  to  have 
materially  altered  the  state  of  Jewish  communities  ;  and  it 
appears  that,  with  the  exception  of  occasional  outbreaks  of 
animosity  between  the  contending  religious  parties,  the 
condition  of  the  Jews  must  have  been  favorable,  as  the 
splendid  courts  of  their  spiritual  leaders,  the  wealth  of  the 
people,  and  the  nourishing  condition  of  the  Mesopotamian 
schools  show  the  tolerant  government  of  their  Persian 
rulers;  but  it  was  during  these  two  centuries  especially  that 
rabbinical  discussions,  which  furnished  the  material  for 
the  compilation  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  took  place.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  as  there  were  two  distinct 
communities  under  separate  heads,  so  there  are  two  Tal- 
muds,  that  of  Jerusalem,  and  that  of  Babylon.  The  Mish- 
nah,  of  which  we  have  spoken  above,  constitutes  the  text 
and  ground-work  of  both  Talmuds.  That  of  Jerusalem, 
collected  in  the  third  century  by  R.  Johanan,  is  considered 
of  little  importance  and  is  seldom  studied  or  consulted. 
When,  therefore,  speaking  of  the  Talmud,  it  is  tacitly  under- 
stood that  the  Babylonian  is  meant.  The  Talmud,  then, 
consists  of  very  lengthy  expositions,  discussions,  and  com- 
mentaries on  the  Mishnah,  in  which  every  point  is  minutely 


45 

considered  and  disputed,  but  not  always  settled.  It  is  an 
extensive  work  of  thirty-six  books,  the  result  of  centuries' of 
labor,  and  containing,  of  course,  the  opinions  of  men  of 
various  talents.  Among  the  Jews  it  has  been  always  looked 
upon  with  great  veneration,  and  very  many  devoted  a  lifetime 
to  the  study  of  it,  to  the  exclusion  even  of  the  study  of  the 
Bible  ;  while  the  Christians,  in  the  middle  ages,  looked  upon 
it  as  "  a  book  very  pernicious,  abounding  with  ridiculous 
fables,  insignificant  decisions,  and  manifest  contradictions." 
Not  less  than  ten  popes,  and  some  of  the  kings  of  France 
and  of  Spain,  forbade  the  study  of  it,  or  ordered  all  copies 
of  it  they  could  seize  to  be  committed  to  the  flames. 

THE  REIGN  OF   JUSTINIAN.     TAKING    OF    JERUSALEM    BY 
CHOSROES.     JEWS  CONTROLLING  THE  SLAVE  TRADE. 

The  most  noteworthy  events  of  the  sixth  century  are,  the 
enactments  of  the  oppressive  laws  of  Justinian,  and  the 
attacks  on  Jerusalem  by  the  Persian  kings  Chosroes  I.  and 
II.  ;  also  the  slave  trade  carried  on  by  the  Jews  in  the  latter 
half  of  that  century;  and  it  is  at  this  period  that  the  settle- 
ments of  Jews  in  different  parts  of  Europe  begin  to  attract 
our  particular  notice. 

Justinian,  having  become  Roman  emperor,  commenced  a 
violent  persecution  of  all  who  differed  with  him  in  religious 
belief.  The  most  noted  act  of  his  life  was  the  reformation 
of  the  Roman  laws,  and  collecting  them  in  one  body  called 
the  Justinian  Code.  Among  these  laws  were  some  very 
oppressive  to  the  Jews,  and  still  more  to  the  Samaritans  ; 
laws  which  interfered  with  their  right  of  property,  their 
liberty,  and  their  religion.  Every  burden  of  society  was 
laid  upon  them,  without  the  return  of  any  reward  of  interest 
or  dignity.  A  dispute  having  arisen  among  the  Jews, 
whether  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  language  should  be  used  in 
the  synagogue,  the  affair  was  brought  before  the  emperor,  who 
decided,  to  the  great  vexation  of  the  rabbis,  that  the  Greek 


46 

might  be  used  ;  but  the  study  of  the  Talmud  was  strictly 
forbidden.  It  was  also  about  that  time  (532)  that  the  com- 
putation of  the  Christian  era  began  ;  that  is,  they  began  to 
count  time  from  the  birth  of  Christ.  While  Jerusalem  was 
under  the  dominion  of  Justinian,  Chosroes  I.,  king  of 
Persia,  proposed  to  conquer  the  holy  city,  and  the  Jews 
looked  with  anxious  hopes  to  a  relief  from  their  Roman 
oppressor  ;  but  a  treaty  of  peace  between  the  two  monarchs 
being  concluded,  Jerusalem  remained  undisturbed.  A  few 
years  later,  Chosroes  II.  meditated  the  conquest  of  Palestine. 
The  Jews,  still  desirous  of  a  change  of  government,  joined 
him  in  great  numbers,  and  those  outside  of  Jerusalem  con- 
spired to  storm  the  city  on  the  night  of  the  Christian 
Easter.  The  Christians,  being  informed  of  the  conspiracy, 
put  the  city  in  a  state  of  defense,  and  threw  the  most 
prominent  Jews  into  prison.  Those  on  the  outside,  seeing 
the  failure  of  their  project,  destroyed  in  the  suburbs  all  the 
property  they  could  seize ;  but  for  every  church  they  set  on 
fire,  the  enemy  inside  the  city  struck  off  the  heads  of  a 
hundred  Jewish  prisoners  and  cast  them  over  the  wall. 
Twenty  churches  were  destroyed,  and  two  thousand  Jews 
lost  their  heads.  At  last  the  Persian  troops  arrived,  and 
with  them  the  Jews  entered  the  city  to  wreak  their  vengeance 
on  their  foes.  Every  church  was  demolished  ;  that  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  was  the  chief  object  of  their  fury,  and  the 
splendid  edifice  erected  by  Helena  and  Constantine  did 
not  escape.  The  Persians,  it  is  said,  sold  the  Christians  for 
slaves,  which  the  Jews  bought  at  high  prices,  only  to 
slaughter  them.  Under  the  mild  protection  of  the  Persians, 
the  Jews,  though  not  independent  masters  of  the  holy  city, 
remained  again  in  peaceful  possession  of  it  for  nearly 
ninety  years;  then  Heraclius  sent  his  troops  against  Jeru- 
salem to  reconquer  it,  and  the  Persian  king  scarcely  offering 
any  assistance,  Palestine  and  the  Jews  passed  again  under 
the  rule  of  their  former  cruel  masters,  the  Romans. 


47 

Another  notable  fact  is,  that  the  slave  trade  in  Europe 
was  for  more  than  a  century  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  Jews,  which  is  owing  to  the  following  circumstances. 
When,  about  the  year  400,  the  northern  barbarians,  who 
were  heathen,  invaded  the  southern  part  of  Europe,  many 
wealthy  cities  and  fertile  fields  were  devastated,  and  their 
Christian  inhabitants  slaughtered  or  sold  as  slaves.  As  the 
Jews  were  merely  sojourners  and  not  attached  to  the  soil, 
they  could  easily  remove,  and  suffered  little  from  these 
invasions.  The  Israelites,  who,  notwithstanding  their  close 
adherence  to  their  faith,  always  had  a  peculiar  aptitude  and 
penetrating  eye  for  commerce,  took  advantage  of  these 
revolutions,  exchanged  with  the  barbarians  the  valuable 
spoils  for  cheap  but  more  useful  articles,  and  at  the  same 
time  bought  their  Christian  captives  at  most  trifling  prices, 
which  traffic  became  a  source  of  great  wealth  to  them. 
Some  Christian  monarchs  and  popes  looked  upon  this  slave 
dealing  with  horror,  and  issued  severe  enactments  against 
it;  while  others,  at  later  times,  recognized  the  right  of 
Jews  holding  slaves  as  their  property,  but  ordered  that  they 
should  be  redeemed  by  Christian  individuals  or  out  of  the 
church  funds ;  but  as  people  were  not  always  willing  and 
prepared  to  obey  these  mandates  at  their  own  expense,  and 
moreover,  as  these  orders  were  issued  in  writing,  and  many 
officers  of  the  government  and  even  many  of  the  clergy 
could  neither  write  nor  read,  these  laws  produced  little 
effect;  and  in  one  of  the  councils  of  Toledo  a  complaint 
was  made  that  even  the  clergy  sold  Christian  captives  to 
Jews  and  heathen. 

THE  RULE  OF  MOHAMMED.    INFLUENCE  OF  ISLAMISM  UPON 

THE  JEWS. 

Hitherto  the  strife  for  supremacy  in  revealed  religion  had 
existed  only  between  Jews  and  Christians  ;  but  a  new  faith, 
Mohammedanism,  was  destined  to  arise,  and  to  surpass, 


48 

numerically,  both  its  rivals.  Mohammed,  an  Arabian  camel 
driver,  born  at  Mecca  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  century, 
pretended  to  be  inspired  by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  found  a 
new  religion.  In  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age  he  proclaimed 
his  doctrine,  which  was,  "  There  is  but  One  God,  and  Mo- 
hammed is  his  prophet. "  In  a  few  years  his  followers  became 
very  numerous  ;  his  religion  spread  over  all  Asia,  the  north 
of  Africa,  and  Spain,  and  is  now  adopted  by  many  millions* 
of  people,  perhaps  more  than  half  of  the  human  race.  The 
Arabs,  or  Mohammedans,  are  descendants  of  Ishmael,  the 
son  of  Abraham  by  Hagar.  The  tenets  of  their  religion  are 
contained  in  a  work  called  Koran,  which,  like  the  word 
Bible,  means  book.  The  successors  of  Mohammed  were  called 
Caliphs,  now  Sultans,  and  their  religion  is  also  called  Islam- 
ism.  The  establishment  of  the  Mohammedan  religion 
caused  great  changes  in  the  government  and  religion  of  the 
eastern  world,  and  considerably  affected  the  condition  of 
the  Jews.  The  Persian  kingdom  fell,  and  their  religion, 
which  was  the  Magian  religion,  or  the  worship  of  fire,  was 
almost  extinguished.  In  the  Asiatic  provinces,  excepting 
Armenia,  Christianity  sank  to  be  an  inconsiderable  and 
persecuted  sect.  A  magnificent  mosque  replaced  the  church 
on  the  summit  of  Moriah,  where  the  Jewish  Temple  had 
formerly  stood,  and  Spain  came  entirely  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Mohammedans.  To  the  Jews  .the  change  was 
generally  favorable,  and  especially  in  Spain,  where  they 
entered  upon  their  era  of  distinction  in  commerce,  in  wealth, 
and  in  literature.  In  the  peninsula  of  Arabia,  however, 
uniformity  of  religion  was  enforced,  and  the  Jews  were  still 
treated  with  intolerance  and  cruelty.  Later,  under  the 
Caliphs,  they  were  generally  treated  with  much  considera- 
tion, and  great  honors  were  conferred  upon  them.  Omar, 
the  second  Caliph,  intrusted  a  Jew  with  the  coinage.  At  a 
still  later  period  (753)  we  find  Jews  intrusted  with  the  office 
of  collecting  a  heavy  fine  laid  upon  the  Christians.  At  the 


49 

capture  of  Rhodes,  the  celebrated  fallen  Colossus,  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  world,  was  sold  to  a  Jew  who,  it  is  said, 
loaded  nine  hundred  camels  with  the  metal.  The  rabbini- 
cal schools  were  then  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and  the 
Prince  of  the  Captivity  governed  his  subjects  with  undis- 
puted sway. 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  KHOZAR. 

Historians  tell  us  about  a  Jewish  kingdom  under  the 
name  of  Khozar  or  Khazar,  the  most  important  and  accred- 
ited points  of  which  are  these.  It  appears  that  at  an  early 
period  a  tribe  of  Pagans  inhabited  the  territory  along  the 
Caucasus  Mountains,  between  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas, 
which  in  course  of  time  became  very  numerous  and  formid- 
able. They  made  rapid  progress  in  commerce  and  civiliza- 
tion, and  from  a  tribe  of  nomads  they  became  a  settled 
nation,  governed  by  a  king.  Their  capital,  Bilangiar,  was 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  and  a  line  of  fortified 
cities  extended  from  there  to  the  Don.  They  became  so 
rich  and  powerful  that  they  were  not  only  respected,  but 
dreaded  by  the  Persians  and  Greeks. ;  As  merchants  of  all 
nations  were  freely  admitted,  the  Khozars  became  acquaint- 
ed with  the  civilized  forms  and  doctrines  of  religion,  and  in 
the  year  740,  Bulan,  their  king  at  that  time,  after  having 
investigated  the  merits  of  the  different  religions,  embraced 
Judaism,  which  is  said  to  have  happened  in  this  way.  (jie 
asked  the  Christians  which  religion,  outside  of  their  own, 
they  thought  best,  Judaism  or  Mohammedanism ;  they 
answered  Judaism,  as  that  was  the  religion  originally  re- 
vealed by  God.  Then  he  asked  the  Mohammedans  which 
of  the  two  they  thought  preferable,  Judaism  or  Christianity, 
and  they  answered  Judaism,  which  like  their  own,  taught 
the  unity  of  God.  /  As,  therefore,  both  Christians  and  Mo- 
hammedans agreed  in  the  validity  of  the  Mosaic  faith,  whilst 
themselves  stood  each  alone  in  asserting  the  superiority  of 
3 


5° 

their  own  creed,  the  king  concluded  to  adopt  Judaism,  and 
make  it  the  dominant  religion  of  his  nation,  establishing  it  at 
the  same  time  as  a  fundamental  law  that  thereafter  no  king 
should  be  chosen  except  one  confessing  the  Jewish  religion. 
This  kingdom  continued  to  exist  for  about  two  centuries 
and  a  half,  until  the  year  1000,  when  the  monarchy  was 
subverted,  and  the  country  conquered  by  the  Slavi. 

DOMINION  OF  THE  PATRIARCH   OF  THE   WEST,  AND  THE 
PRINCE  OF  THE  CAPTIVITY. 

We  have  spoken  before  of  the  two  Jewish  communities 
which  formed  after  the  destruction  of  the  Second  Temple, 
and  which  were  governed  respectively  by  the  Patriach  of 
the  West,  and  the  Prince  of  the  Captivity.  We  will  now 
treat  more  fully  of  the  office  and  dominion  of  these  rulers, 
and  the  duration  of  their  administration.  The  exact  time 
when  the  patriarchate  began  we  cannot  say,  but  it  appears 
to  have  been  some  seventy  years  after  the  destruction,  and 
that  Simon  Ben  Gamliel  was  the  first  who  held  this  dignity. 
The  residence  of  the  Patriarch  was  Tiberias,  in  Palestine, 
and  the  exercise  of  his  jurisdiction  extended  chiefly  over 
the  religious  affairs  of  his  constituents,  who  were  voluntary 
subjects  and  tributaries  to  their  sovereign.  The  Patriarch 
was  acknowledged  and  supported  in  his  authority  by  the 
civil  powers  of  the  land,  because  the  whole  community 
tacitly  consented  to  the  institution,  and  though  he  was  not 
legally  empowered  to  enforce  obedience  to  his  decisions  by 
compulsory  measures,  he  had  more  powerful  means  at  hand, 
which  was  that  of  excommunication — a  punishment  which  all 
dreaded  more  than  pecuniary  fines  or  bodily  chastisement, 
both  of  which,  however,  were  also  occasionally  administered. 
The  Patriarch  was  supported  in  his  judiciary  functions  by 
an  Ab-beth-din  and  a  Chacham,  as  well  as  by  other  assess- 
ors, thus  forming  a  kind  of  Sanhedrin,  and  all  minor  officials 
were  appointed  by  him.  The  annual  contributions  of  the 


51 

community  were  such  as  to  enable  their  spiritual  monarch 
to  live  in  magnificent  style,  which  may  have  been  the  cause 
that  some  of  those  rulers  looked  as  much,  or  even  more,  to 
the  worldly  interests  of  the  position  as  to  the  religious 
welfare  of  the  people.  Among  those  who  occupied  the  patri- 
achal  seat,  several  were  ambitious  men,  who  by  their  severity 
and  overbearance  caused  strife  and  disunion  in  the  com- 
munity, yet  there  were  many  of  very  superior  scholarship 
and  excellent  character,  who  had  nothing  but  the  real 
interests  of  the  people  at  heart.  R.  Jehuda  Hakkadosh,  the 
compiler  of  the  Mishna,  is  acknowledged  as  the  most  illus- 
trious of  the  whole  series  of  Patriarchs.  The  institution 
lasted  about  three  hundred  years,  and  terminated  in  the 
year  429.  R.  Gamliel  was  the  last  of  the  Patriarchs.  The 
position  of  Resh-Galuta,  or  Prince  of  the  Captivity,  was  not 
unlike  the  preceding,  but  differed  chiefly  in  this  respect, 
that  the  authority  of  the  Resh-Galuta  extended  over  the 
secular  as  well  as  over  the  religious  affairs  of  the  commu- 
nity ;  in  fact,  at  first  his  power  extended  exclusively  over 
secular  concerns,  while  the  decisions  of  all  ecclesiastical 
affairs  were  rendered  at  the  court  of  Tiberias.  When  later,, 
however,  the  Babylonian  schools  produced  men  equally  as 
well  versed  in  the  law  as  were  the  Palestinians,  the  eastern 
community  asserted  its  entire  independence,  and  still  later 
surpassed  its  rival  in  wealth,  splendor,  and  learning,  and  the 
Prince  of  Captivity  exercised  his  royal  powers  with  an 
authority  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  David  or  Solomon.  The 
inauguration  ceremonies  of  this  dignitary  were  of  .truly 
royal  magnificence,  and  the  pomp  and  grandeur  of  his 
court  perhaps  equally  as  great  as  that  of  his  Persian  master. 
Internal  dissensions  among  those  in  authority  prevailed  in 
Babylonia  not  less  than  in  Palestine;  still  the  eastern 
schools  and  colleges  increased  rapidly  and  spread  all  over 
the  country,  and  general  learning  grew  in  proportion ;  for 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  traits  in  the  history  of  the  Jews 


52 

is  the  singular  devotion  they  have  always  shown  to  mental 
culture.  The  most  famous  colleges  were  those  of  Nehardea, 
Sura,  and  Pumbedita.  Among  the  many  eminent  scholars 
who  rose,  there  is  chiefly  to  be  noted  Rab  Asche,  who  under- 
took and  accomplished  the  compilation  of  the  Talmud, 
which  took  place  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century. 
In  course  of  time  the  power  of  the  Romish  church  increased 
and  the  Islam  retrograded.  The  Babylonian  schools  as 
well  as  the  Palestinian  decreased  in  number  and  import- 
ance, and  the  flux  of  emigration  set  in  towards  Africa,  to 
Spain,  and  other  European  countries.  The  office  of 
Resh-Galuta  continued  in  a  lingering  condition  until  1038. 
The  last  chief  of  the  Captivity  was  Hezekiah,  who,  by  order 
of  the  Caliph  Abdallah  Kaim,  was  seized  and  ignominiously 
executed. 

THE  JEWS  IN  SPAIN.    MOSES  IN  SACKCLOTH. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  Jews  in  Europe, 
beginning  with  Spain.  The  settlement  of  our  ancestors  in 
that  country  is  of  a  very  early  date,  by  some  believed  to  have 
been  as  early  as  the  time  of  King  Solomon.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  the  Jews  in 
Spain  were  so  numerous  and  influential  that  fears  of  the 
whole  community  adopting  Judaism  were  entertained  by  the 
Church,  and  measures  were  taken  by  both  king  and  clergy 
to  oppose  the  influence.  As  the  Jews  were  always  wealthy, 
their  presence  excited  the  envy  of  their  neighbors,  while  at 
the  same  time  by  their  industry  they  constituted  the  most 
important  part  of  the  population.  The  influence  of  these 
two  qualities — their  wealth  and  their  industry — varied  and 
predominated  as  the  sentiments  and  the  circumstances  of 
their  Mohammedan  or  Christian  rulers  changed.  Hence 
they  were  often  persecuted  and  exiled  in  order  to  rob  them 
of  their  wealth,  and  again  recalled  or  readmitted  to  enrich 
the  country  by  their  industry.  This  has  been  the  case  in 


53 

most  European  countries  ;  but  the  treatment  of  the  Jews 
under  Mohammedan  rulers  has  always  been  milder  than  that 
under  their  Christian  masters,  and  when  in  712  the  Ara- 
bians (that  is  the  Moors  or  Saracens)  conquered  Spain,  the 
Jews  hailed  with  delight  the  change  of  government  from 
Christian  to  Mohammedan,  and  they  are  believed  to  have 
been  instrumental  in  producing  that  change.  From  that 
time  till  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  we  have  but  little 
positive  information.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Jews 
shared  largely  in  the  splendor  and  prosperity  of  the  Arabs, 
and  mingled  freely  with  them,  and  that  their  common 
Oriental  origin  favored  the  coalition.  They  soon  wrote  and 
spoke  in  Arabic  as  well  as  in  Hebrew,  and  are  to  this  day 
looked  upon  by  the  Christians  of  Spain  and  Portugal  as  their 
first  masters  in  every  department  of  science.  In  980  many 
Jews  came  to  Spain  from  Palestine  and  Mesopotamia,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  decline  of  the  high -school ;  and  many  pro- 
minent rabbis  opened  in  Castile  and  Aragon  in  Cordova, 
Granada,  Barcelona,  and  other  cities,  schools  not  only  of 
Jewish  theology,  but  also  of  various  sciences.  They  were 
treated  with  great  consideration  and  respect  by  the  Moors 
on  account  of  their  superior  learning  ;  and  while  Christian 
Europe  was  enveloped  in  mental  darkness  ;  while  Christian 
barons  could  not  write  their  names,  and  Christian  priests 
could  scarcely  spell  out  their  breviaries  ;  Mohammedan  Cor- 
dova might  be  considered  the  centre  of  civilization,  of  arts, 
and  of  letters,  to  which  the  Jews  were  the  chief  contributors. 
Hebrew  poetry  began  to  be  more  cultivated,  and  many  sub- 
lime poems  found  in  our  prayer-books,  some  of  which  yet 
bear  the  stamp  of  Arabic  rhythm,  and  the  Arabic  melody  of 
which  has  even  been  preserved  among  the  Sephardim,  were 
then  composed  ;  and  an  Arabic  translation  of  the  Talmud 
was  made  under  the  direction  of  R.  Moses  Ben  Hanoch 
who  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  the  great  Spanish 
schools,  and  of  whom  the  following  singular-  incident  is 


54 

recorded.  This  R.  Moses,  together  with  two  other  rabbins 
of  great  distinction,  left  Babylonia  to  settle  in  Spain,  and  on 
their  passage  were  made  captives  by  a  Spanish  pirate.  The 
wife  of  R.  Moses  accompanied  him  on  the  voyage,  and 
fearing  that  she  would  be  ill-treated,  looked  to  her  husband 
for  advice.  He  cited  a  text  in  Hebrew,  "  The  Lord  said,  I 
will  bring  back  from  the  depth  of  the  sea,"  by  which  he 
hinted  to  her  that  it  were  better  to  perish  than  to  yield  her- 
self up  to  the  ruffians.  Hereupon  the  high-minded  woman 
plunged  into  the  sea  and  perished.  R.  Moses  was  brought 
to  Cordova  as  a  slave,  and  was  redeemed  by  the  Jews, 
though  his  quality  and  high  attainments  were  not  known. 
One  day  he  entered  the  synagogue  in  his  coarse  dress  of 
sack-cloth,  while  R.  Nathan  was  presiding  and  discussing 
certain  points  of  the  law.  R.  Moses  entered  into  the  debate, 
and  showed  such  profound  knowledge  that  the  presiding 
rabbi  and  all  present  were  astonished.  Hereupon  the  chief 
rabbi  exclaimed,  "  I  am  no  more  your  instructor,  this  man 
in  sack-cloth  is  my  master,  and  I  am  his  scholar."  Rabbi 
Moses  was  then  appointed  as  head  of  the  community  by 
general  consent.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Enoch,  and 
the  latter  again  by  his  son  Nathan,  who  was  held  in  such 
high  esteem,  and  the  wealth  of  the  members  of  his  com- 
munity was  so  great,  that  whenever  the  rabbi  went  to  enjoy 
a  recreation  in  the  beautiful  groves  and  gardens  near 
Cordova,  he  was  followed  by  great  numbers  of  his  scholars 
and  friends,  and  some  700  chariots  followed  in  the  proces- 
sion. 

SPANISH  JEWISH  SCHOLARS  AND  STATESMEN. 

A  full  description  of  the  elevated  condition  of  the  Jews 
in  Spain  and  Portugal  would  fill  quite  a  number  of  pages, 
much  more  than  the  scope  of  this  work  will  allow  ;  we  must 
satisfy  ourselves  here  with  a  condensed  account  of  it.  It  is 
now  admitted  by  all  impartial  thinkers  that  the  world  owes 


55 

the  Jews  an  immense  debt  of  gratitude,  not  only  for  the 
preservation  of  the  Scriptures,  but  for  their  invaluable  con- 
tributions to  the  sciences,  to  philosophy,  mathematics,  astron- 
omy, and  medicine,  especially  the  latter.  From  the  brilliant 
constellation  of  literati  which  adorns  our  history  we  can  select 
only  a  few  of  the  brightest  stars,  beginning  with  some  emi- 
nent theologians  and  poets.  R.  Menahem  Ben  Saruc  was  a 
learned  Talmudist  and  author  of  a  Hebrew  lexicon,  the  manu- 
script of  which  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican.  R. 
Samuel  Chophni  Hacohen,  of  Cordova,  wrote  an  exposition 
on  Deuteronomy,  still  in  manuscript.  Another  R.  Samuel, 
of  Barcelona,  distinguished  himself  by  the  efforts  he  made 
to  annul  the  old  rabbinical  decrees  against  the  study  of 
Greek  literature.  Another  doctor  of  Barcelona,  Judah  Ben 
Levi  Barzilai,  not  long  after,  wrote  a  treatise  on  a  subject 
not- well  understood  in  the  East,  "The  Rights  of  Woman." 
A  very  singular  coincidence  presents  itself  in  a  group  of 
five  learned  men,  all  of  whom  bore  the  name  of  Isaac  :  R. 
I.  Ben  Geath  was  the  wealthy  chief  of  the  congregation 
at  Lucena  ;  R.  I.  Ben  Moses,  professor  at  Denia  ;  R.  I.  Ben 
Reuben,  of  Barcelona  ;  R.  I.  Ben  Baruch,  a  theologian  and 
mathematician  in  high  esteem  for  his  proficiency  in  the  latter 
branch  at  the  court  of  the  King  of  Grenada,  and  last,  the  great 
R.  I.  Alphasi  (z.  £.,  of  Fez),  distinguished  for  his  elaborate 
commentary  on  the  Talmud.  R.  Asher,  a  German  by  birth, 
established  himself  at  Toledo,  and,  on  account  of  his  great 
learning,  was  there  chosen  head  of  all  the  schools  and  syna- 
gogues in  Spain.  The  prosperity  of  the  Jews  in  Castile,  and 
the  influence  of  their  nobles  reached  its  greatest  height  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  In  the  counsels  and  friendship  of 
Alphonso  XI.,  his  physicians,  Don  Samuel  Abenhacar,  Don 
Samuel  Ben  Jaes,  and  R.  Moses  Abudiel  held  a  permanent 
and  distinguished  place.  Spanish  historians  speak  of  Don 
Joseph,  called  Almoxarife,  "the  treasurer,"  who,  withOsorio, 
the  Count  de  Transtamare,  long  possessed  the  king's  un- 


56 

limited  favor.  The  marriage  settlement  of  Henry  IV.,  of  Cas- 
tile, with  the  Princess  of  Portugal  was  drawn  up  by  a  Jewish 
ambassador,  R.  Joseph,  the  king's  physician.  In  the  same 
century,  Abiathar,of  Lerida,in  Arragon,  gained  great  renown 
by  curing  the  blindness  of  King  John  II.  at  the  age  of  eighty. 
This  cure  is  the  first  instance  of  the  operation  for  cataract 
which  has  been  recorded  in  the  history  of  medical  science. 
The  physician  ventured  to  perform  the  operation  upon  one 
eye,  and  having  completely  succeeded,  felt  some  hesitation 
in  proceeding;  but  the  resolute  and  courageous  old  king 
compelled  him  to  risk  an  operation  on  the  other  also.  In 
Portugal,  the  names  of  Jewish  physicians  are  rarely  wanting 
among  the  officers  of  the  king's  household.  The  dignity  of 
"  Physico-mor,"  or  first  physician,  was  instituted  by  King 
John  I.,  of  Portugal,  in  1385,  and  bestowed  first  upon  the 
Jewish  physician  Micer  Moses,  together  with  great  privi- 
leges for  himself  and  nation.  Other  Jewish  professors  of 
medicine  were  treated  with  similar  consideration  until  the 
reign  of  King  Manuel.  When  the  Jews  were  banished  from 
Portugal  in  the  year  1497,  the  new  Christians,  concealed  or 
baptized  Jews,  and  their  descendants  continued  to  distin- 
guish themselves  as  professors  of  medicine.  For  example, 
Dr.  Manuel  de  Fonseca,  and  his  son,  Dr.  Lope  de  Fonseca, 
whose  daughter,  Ginebra,  was  burnt  by  the  Inquisition  on 
a  charge  of  Judaism ;  Dr.  Abraham  Zacuto  (Zacutus  Lusi- 
tanus),  author  of  the  "History  of  Celebrated  Physicians;" 
Dr.  Immanuel  Jacob  Resales,  upon  whom  the  Emperor  of 
Germany  bestowed  the  dignity  of  Count  Palatine,  and  Dr. 
Roderigo  de  Castro  were  equally  known  by  their  writings, 
and  celebrated  for  their  enlightened  views  during  the  early 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Don  Samuel  Levi  was 
Minister  of  Finance  to  King  Pedro,  successor  to  Alphonso 
XI.  The  ancient  Spanish  chronicle  of  that  monarch  gives 
an  account  of  the  faithful  services  rendered  by  this  saga- 
cious financier,  relating  how  he  enriched  the  royal  treasury 


57 

by  compelling  the  dishonest  tax-gatherers  to  give  in  their 
accounts,  and  make  good  their  receipts.  Pedro,  however, 
was  as  ungrateful  as  he  was  cruel  ;  for  his  faithful  minister, 
together  with  other  favorites,  was  condemned  to  the  torture 
under  which  he  expired  in  1360.  We  rarely  find  mention 
made  of  a  Jewish  theologian  or  physician  in  Spain  or  Portu- 
gal during  the  middle  ages  who  was  not  at  the  same  time  a 
poet,  astronomer,  or  mathematician,  often  all  these  together. 
R.  Abraham  Zacuto  was  professor  of  astronomy  at  the 
Academy  of  Salamanca,  his  native  town,  till  1492,  when, 
having  fled  to  Portugal,  he  was  favorably  received  by  King 
Manuel,  and  raised  to  a  post  of  honor  at  his  court.  He 
made  a  perpetual  almanac,  dedicated  to  the  Bishop  of 
Salamanca,  published  at  Leiria,  in  Portugal,  1495.  He  is 
well-known  in  rabbinical  literature  as  the  author  of  "  Sepher 
Yochasin  "  (book  of  genealogies),  a  valuable  source  of  refer- 
ence for  the  history  of  the  older  rabbinical  schools  of  the- 
ology. The  principal  councillors  of  John  II.,  of  Portugal, 
when  undertaking  the  expeditions  that  led  to  the  discovery 
of  a  new  way  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  were 
the  two  Bishops  of  Viseu  and  Ceuta,  and  three  Jewish  physi- 
cians, Jose,  Roderigo,  and  Moses.  The  first  idea  of  the 
possibility  of  finding  a  passage  to  India  was  suggested  by 
the  observations  of  two  Portuguese  Jews,  R.  Abraham  de 
Beja,  and  Joseph  Zaphatero  de  Lamego,  who  had  been  sent 
by  King  John  II.  to  explore  Ormuz  and  the  coast  of  the 
Red  Sea.  An  investigation  as  to  the  best  means  of  en- 
couraging navigation,  not  along  the  coast  only,  but  in  the 
open  sea,  was  confided  by  the  government,  during  the  reign 
of  this  prince,  to  the  celebrated  German,  Martin  de  Behaim, 
then  established  in  the  country,  together  with  the  before- 
mentioned  Roderigo  and  Jose.  And  let  it  be  borne  in 
mind  that  we  do  not  depend  for  our  information  on  these 
points  on  the  evidence  of  Jewish  writers  only,  but  on  the 
authoritative  records  of  the  country  as  well.  From  the 


58 

unanimous  testimony  of  the  chronicles  of  the  church,  and 
from  authentic  Spanish  historians,  we  learn  how  large  a 
share  of  influence,  wealth,  and  consideration  was  at  that 
time  possessed  by  the  Jews  in  Spain.  Also  in  France  and 
elsewhere,  Jews  frequently  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
medical  profession.  A  Jewish  physician  was  called  in  to 
Francis  I.,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  recommend 
the  use  of  ass's  milk.  Another  Jewish  physician  followed 
the  constable  of  Bourbon  in  his  exile,  and  his  son  was  the 
distinguished  chancellor  of  France,  Michel  de  1'Hopital, 
celebrated  for  his  great  talent  as  a  legist  and  statesman. 
In  the  eighteenth  century,  Dr.  de  Silva,  a  Portuguese  Jew, 
was  highly  celebrated  in  France  as  a  physician,  and  is  one 
of  the  very  few  upon  whom  Voltaire,  the  great  enemy  of 
Israel,  bestowed  some  words  of  praise,  both  in  his  poetry 
and  his  history.  We  have  scarcely  spoken  of  the  Spanish 
Jews  as  poets.  R.  Isaac  Ben  Geath,  whom  we  have  already 
mentioned,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  poets  in  Spain. 
His  poetical  productions  for  the  penitential  holidays  are 
particularly  admired.  His  son,  R.  Judah,  and  his  grandson, 
R.  Solomon,  succeeded  him,  and  both  are  looked  upon  as 
masters  of  the  art  by  such  judges  as  Alcharisi,  and  Judah 
Halevi.  R.  Bechai  Ben  Joseph  Ben  Pekodah  also  stands 
high  as  a  poet,  and  of  still  brighter  fame  is  R.  Moses  Aben 
Ezra,  equally  celebrated  as  a  Talmudist  and  professor  of 
Greek  philosophy.  Although,  like  his  brother  poets,  he  ex- 
celled in  sacred  song,  he  also  tuned  his  lyre  as  an  inhabi- 
tant of  the  West,  and  sang  at  times  of  love,  but  more  often 
in  praise  of  the  beauties  of  nature.  Alexander  von  Hum- 
bolt,  in  his  "Cosmos,"  bestows  much  praise  on  his  sublime 
description  of  natural  scenery.  So,  also,  Don  Santo  de 
Carion,  who  embraced  Christianity,  was  distinguished  as 
one  of  the  most  famous  troubadours  of  the  age.  Still  higher 
in  the  scale  of  poetical  genius  stands  R.  Judah  Halevi;  and 
the  acme,  we  may  say,  is  reached  by  the  great  R.  Solomon 


59 

Ben  Gebirol,  who  is  unanimously  allowed  to  have  far  ex- 
celled all  other  Jewish  poets  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  cen- 
turies. Born  in  1031  at  Malaga  or  Saragossa,  where  he 
afterwards  resided,  his  life  was  as  short  as  his  talents  were 
brilliant,  and  his  end  tragical.  His  death  is  said  to  have 
been  caused  by  the  sanguinary  envy  of  an  Arabian  rival  in 
song,  and  the  young  poet,  it  is  said,  was  buried  by  his  mur- 
derer under  a  fig-tree,  which  produced  in  consequence  so 
great  an  abundance  of  fruit  of  such  exquisite  flavor  as  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  caliph,  and  led  to  a  discovery  of 
the  body,  and  a  detection  of  the  crime  and  its  perpetrator. 
The  poetical  talents  of  Gebirol  were  exercised  on  many 
different  subjects  ;  hymns,  elegies,  and  confessions  of  sin, 
many  of  which,  as  well  as  the  compositions  of  the  afore- 
named masters,  are  still  retained  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Sephar- 
dim.  His  "  Keter  Malchut  "  (Royal  Crown)  is  looked  upon 
as  his  masterpiece,  the  sublimity  of  which,  indeed,  cannot 
be  too  highly  estimated,  and  can  be  appreciated  only  by 
those  who  have  a  taste  for  Hebrew  style,  though  its  grandeur 
appears  even  in  the  many  foreign  tongues  into  which  it  has 
been  translated. 

ABEN  EZRA  AND  MAIMONIDES. 

We  have  expatiated — perhaps  too  much,  considering  the 
limits  we  prescribed  to  our  book — on  the  greatness,  the 
erudition,  and  the  nobility  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
Jews — a  subject  which  we  could  pursue  with  an  ardor  little 
short  of  enthusiasm,  and  for  which  a  sense  of  national  pride 
in  the  author  may  plead  an  excuse  ;  and  yet  we  cannot  take 
leave  of  this  interesting  matter  without  devoting  an  addi- 
tional paragraph  to  the  biography  of  "the  two  great 
lights,"  Aben  Ezra  and  Maimonides. 

Abraham  Ben  Meir  Aben  Ezra  was  born  of  a  noble  family 
at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  at  Toledo.  He  was 
a  man  of  extensive  erudition  and  wonderful  genius,  per- 


6o 

fectly  familiar  alike  with  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  and 
the  closest  interwoven  textures  of  rabbinical  literature. 
Taking  in  consideration  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  he  was 
really  eminent  as  a  commentator,  grammarian,  philosopher, 
physician,  astronomer,  and  poet.  In  his  fiery  spirit,  in  the 
ardor  of  his  imagination,  and  in  his  humorous  vein  he  is 
unequalled  by  any  of  the  Jewish  literati.  His  style  is  pure, 
expressive,  and  original ;  his  sentences  are  elegant,  some- 
times lively  and  full  of  wit,  but  often  so  brief  as  to  be 
obscure.  Like  many  of  his  co-temporaries,  he  had  a  great 
inclination  for  travelling.  This  taste  is  worthy  of  remark 
as  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  the  life  led  by  the  monks 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of  that  period.  This  desire 
of  becoming  personally  acquainted  with  a  world  in  which 
they  met  with  so  much  hostility  is  especially  observable  in 
Aben  Ezra.  The  various  places  from  which  he  dated  his 
different  works  show  in  a  literal  sense  that  he  was  a  wan- 
derer on  the  earth.  As  a  commentator  on  the  Scriptures  he 
is  valued  without  exception  by  all.  His  hymn  on  the  Soul 
is  a  poetical  development  of  the  idea  that  every  night,  during 
sleep,  the  soul,  released  from  the  body,  ascends  to  heaven 
to  give  an  account  of  the  work  done  uring  the  day.  His 
poetical  compositions  extend  also  to  nuptial  hymns,  elegies, 
satires,  and  even  a  series  of  verses  on  the  game  of  chess. 
He  visited  also  Palestine,  and  held  converse  with  the  learned 
men  of  Tiberias  upon  the  Masoretic  text  of  the  Bible.  He 
died  on  his  return  from  this  pilgrimage  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
five,  much  lamented  by  all  who  knew  him,  among  whom  his 
friend  and  admirer  Maimonides. 

Rabbi  Moses  Ben  Maimon,  or  with  the  Greek  termination 
Maimonides,  known  also  among  us  as  Rambam,  was  born 
at  Cordova  in  Spain  about  the  year  1130.  His  father  filled 
the  office  of  judge  in  his  native  city,  as  several  of  his  im- 
mediate ancestors  had  done  before  him.  Maimonides 
received  his  early  education  at  Lucena  and  subsequently 


6i 

pursued  his  studies  at  Cordova,  where  he  formed  the  acquaint- 
ance and  friendship  of  the  great  Arabian  philosopher 
Averroes,  which  appears  to  have  greatly  influenced  his 
mode  of  thinking.  He  made  uncommon  progress,  not  only 
in  rabbinical  literature,  but  excelled  also  in  mathematics, 
metaphysics,  and  the  medical  science,  and  added  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  languages  that  of 
Chaldee,  Turkish,  and  Greek,  and  made  himself  familiar 
with  the  writings  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  other  famous  phil- 
osophers. Averroes  was,  what  may  be  properly  called  a 
free-thinker  ;  was  persecuted  and  removed  from  the  chief 
magistracy  of  Cordova,  and  Maimonides,  unwilling  to  betray 
his  friend,  submitted  to  a  voluntary  exile  and  fled  to  Egypt- 
There  for  some  time  he  traded  in  precious  stones,  but  at 
the  same  time  continued  his  studies  and  completed  his  com- 
meritary  on  the  Mishnah  in  Arabic.  His  great  merit  intro- 
duced him  to  the  notice  and  esteem  of  the  Sultan  Alphadel 
Abderrahim  who  appointed  him  his  physician,  which  office 
he  continued  to  occupy  under  Salaheddin  and  other  Egyp- 
tian monarchs  till  the  day  of  his  death.  The  most  extensive 
work  of  Maimonides  is  his  "  Yad  Hachazakah  "  (the  Power- 
ful Hand)  which  is  a  complete  digest  of  Jewish  law,  drawn 
from  the  confused  compilation  of  the  Talmud.  He  thus 
produced  a  regular  code  of  fixed  laws  cleared  of  all  the 
disputations  and  all  extraneous  matter  with  which  they  are 
intermixed  in  the  Talmud,  thus  establishing  order  out  of 
chaos.  The  work  consists  of  fourteen  books  written  in  pure 
and  elegant  Hebrew.  The  next  in  importance  is  his  "Moreh 
Nebuchim"  (Guide  for  the  Erring)  written  in  Arabic.  This 
is  a  critical,  philosophical,  and  theological  work,  in  which 
the  author  endeavors  to  explain  many  difficult  passages  of 
the  Bible,  and  is  rendered  particularly  important  by  an 
excellent  exposition  of  the  grounds  and  reasons  of  the 
Mosaic  laws.  Maimonides,  like  his  friend  Averroes,  was 
an  independent  thinker.  By  looking  upon  the  divine  laws 


62 

in  a  rational  way,  and  finding  a  palpable  reason  for  every 
one  of  them,  he  opposed  and  offended  the  sentiments  of  a 
class  of  rabbis  who  believed  that  we  cannot  penetrate  into  the 
reasons  of  the  laws,  and  that  by  endeavoring  to  do  so  we 
detract  from  their  sanctity.     The  publication  of  this  work, 
consequently,  caused  a  great  commotion  in  the  rabbinical 
world,  and  led  to  fearful  results.     Some  rabbis  of  France 
met  it  with  the  most  violent  opposition,  and  went  so  far  as 
to  burn  the  books  and  lay  the  ban  of  excommunication  on 
the  author;  while  others   as  determinately  defended  Mai- 
monides  and  his  work,  and  hurled  back  the  anathema.    His 
opponents,  still   more  irritated,  ventured  on   the  desperate 
measure  of  applying  to  the  Christians  for  aid,  assuring  them 
that  certain  heretics  had  come  forward  among  the  Jews,  who 
entertained  and  disseminated  dangerous  opinions,  and  ex- 
pressing an  earnest  wish  that  they  might  be  treated  as  the 
Christians   treated  such   characters  among   themselves,  by 
burning  both  the  books  and  their  authors.    By  these  extreme 
measures   the   contending   parties   exposed   themselves   to 
great  contempt  and  danger,  and  the  result  might  have  been 
yet  more  serious ;  but  the  decisive  and  united  action  of  the 
Spanish  congregation  ultimately  settled  the  matter  in  favor 
of  Maimonides  and  his  writings.    The  works  of  this  indefa- 
tigable author  amount  to  more  than  thirty  in  number,  and 
some  of  them  are  of  great  magnitude.     His  medical  pro- 
fession— -as  he  declared  in  one  of  his  private  letters — occupied 
nearly  all  his  hours  in  the  day-time  ;  and  how  he  could  find 
leisure  to  collect  and  digest  materials  for  the  numerous  and 
voluminous   works    which    flowed   from   his   pen   is   truly 
astonishing.     Our  great  author  died  at  Cairo,  at  the  age  of 
seventy,  and  was  buried  at  Tiberias  in  Palestine,  followed 
by  an  immense  concourse  of  admirers. 


JEWS  IN  ARABIA,    INDIA,  AND  CHINA. 

We  retrace  our  steps  to  an  earlier  period,  to  contemplate 
once  more  the  condition  of  the  Jews  in  Asia,  namely,  in 
Arabia,  India,  and  China.  Arabia,  in  consequence  of  its  close 
proximity  to  Palestine,  was  at  an  early  date  (150  B.C.)  visited 
by  Jews  who  sought  a  refuge  there  whenever  their  condition 
in  Judea  became  threatening  or  dangerous.  They  lived  with 
the  Arabs  on  most  intimate  terms,  and  in  course  of  time  their 
congregations  increased  rapidly  until  they  assumed  immense 
proportions.  Before  the  time  of  Mohammed  we  find  them 
spoken  of  in  the  history  of  the  peninsula  as  numerous,  free, 
and  powerful,  constituting  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Ara- 
bian population.  So  close  was  the  intermixture  of  Jews  and 
Ara*bs,  and  so  similar  their  morals  and  manners,  that  their 
rulers,  it  seems,  were  chosen  indiscriminately  from  either 
portion  ;  and  the  fact  is  mentioned  with  certainty  that  not 
only  Jewish  kings  were  appointed,  but  that  Judaism,  that.is, 
in  a  very  limited  sense  of  the  word,  prevailed.  This  happy 
state  of  mutual  toleration  continued  till  270  (C.E.)  when  it 
was  disturbed  by  the  Roman  Christian  emperor  Aurelian. 
Still  the  Jews  maintained  their  position,  at  least  in  some 
parts  of  Arabia,  for  we  find  that,  in  the  sixth  century,  Dun- 
aan,  the  last  king  of  Yemen,  was  a  Jew,  and  his  wars, 
achievements,  and  ultimate  defeat  are  described  in  detail. 
When  Mohammed  made  his  appearance,  at  first  only  as  a  poet 
and  reformer,  he  found  the  Arabian  Jews  in  general  favor- 
ably disposed  towards  him.  Some  even  joined  his  ranks, 
and  out  of  consideration  for  the  Jews  of  Medina,  he  even 
changed  some  of  his  precepts  ;  but  when  he  proclaimed  him- 
self a  prophet,  and  empowered  to  annul  the  Mosaic  precepts, 
the  Jews  determinately  refused  all  adherence  or  submission 
to  his  teachings,  and  from  that  moment  they  became  the 
special  object  of  his  hatred, 


64 

We  have  but  little  reliable  information  concerning  the 
Jews  in  India.  What  we  have  been  able  to  glean  is, 
that  in  the  sixth  century,  in  consequence  of  a  persecu- 
tion raised  in  Persia,  seventy-two  families  under  the 
leadership  of  Joseph  Rabban  (/'.  *?.,  Joseph  our  master) 
sought  admittance  in  India  of  King  Scheram  Perimal, 
and  obtained  a  piece  of  land  near  Granganor  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  there  an  independent  principal- 
ity. Two  brazen  tablets,  to  which  are  attached  the  names 
of  seven  princes  as  witnesses,  contained  the  privileges  grant- 
ed to  the  new  prince,  the  first  of  whom  was  Joseph.  These 
families  henceforth  constituted  the  aristocracy  of  the  com- 
munity and  became  very  wealthy.  Many  Indians  joined 
them,  and  they  acquired  a  great  number  of  slaves,  male  and 
female,  all  of  whom  were  converted  to  Judaism  and  who 
in  course  of  time  far  outnumbered  their  masters.  The  colony 
increased  still  more  by  the  addition  of  new  emigrants  from 
various  parts  of  Western  Asia,  who  had  heard  of  the  El 
Dorado  of  their  brethren,  especially  young  men  who  bought 
themselves  slaves,  converted  them,  and  married  them,  and 
hence  the  black  Jewish  population  of  India.  In  language, 
features,  and  color  these  Indian  Jews  resemble  exactly  the 
other  inhabitants  of  the  country,  yet  they  have  the  "  Shemah 
Israel"  and  some  Hebrew  prayers ;  strictly  observe  the  day 
of  Atonement,  and  various  other  Jewish  institutions.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Jews  of  Cochin 
held  some  correspondence  with  the  Portuguese  congregation 
at  Amsterdam,  and  information  was  given  of  a  series  of 
Jewish  kings  (satraps,  we  must  suppose)  who  had  succes- 
sively reigned  in  the  country.  Another  colony  of  black  Jews 
under  the  name  of  "  Bene  Israel"  is  found  in  Bombay,  whose 
ancestors  evidently  came  thither  from  Persia.  A  Jewish 
traveller,  J.  J.  Benjamin,  who  visited  them  in  1849-50,  gives 
us  information  concerning  these  people  much  similar  to  the 
particulars  we  just  related  of  the  other  tribe. 


The  history  of  the  Jews  in  China  is  yet  involved  in  much 
obscurity.  We  will  give  only  a  few  details  which  are  unani- 
mously accepted  as  true,  and  some  resting  on  strong  pro- 
bability. It  is  certain  that  some  of  the  Mesopotamian  Jews 
in  their  eastward  course  settled  in  Persia,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  disturbances  in  the  Mongolian  empire  wended 
their  way,  together  with  some  Christian  families,  to  the  far 
distant  regions  of  China.  j  The  first  discovery  of  the  exist- 
ence of  Jews  in  that  country  was  made  in  1642  by  Jesuit 
missionaries  who  met  with  Jews  at  Pekin,  Nanking,  and 
Kai-fung-foo.  The  whole  population  of  the  Chinese  Jews 
sprang  from  seven  tribes,  or  families,  whose  unpronounce- 
able names  seem  to  be  derived  from  those  of  the  different 
emperors  under  whom,  at  successive  periods,  these  families 
established  themselves  in  China.  The  Jews  there  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  Chinese  name  which  signifies,  "the  people 
that  cut  out  the  sinew."  They  have  at  Kai-fung-foo  a  fine 
Synagogue,  a  Sepher,  and  several,  but  not  all  of  our  books 
of  the  Scriptures  ;  and  the  initiation  into  the  Abrahamic 
covenant,  as  also  the  Sabbath  and  festivals,  are  observed  by 
them.  The  religion  and  history  of  Christ  is  entirely  un- 
known among  them,  but  some  have  been  found  great  ad- 
mirers of  Confucius.  Some  inscriptions  testify  that  several 
Jews  had  been  highly  honored  with  the  imperial  favor  and 
had  attained  the  rank  of  Mandarin  ;  and  we  read  especially 
of  one  named  Chao,  or  Chong,  who  was  much  praised  for 
having  rebuilt  at  his  own  expense  a  synagogue  destroyed  by 
fire.  We  will  only  add  that  the  source  of  all  these  Asiatic 
Jews  must  be  traced  back  to  Babylonian  origin,  and  they 
are  not  to  be  considered  as  parts  of  the  Lost  Ten  Tribes. 

JEWS  IN  AFRICA. 

Africa — the  cradle  of  Israel's  nationality,  the  birthplace 
of  their  great  legislator,  the  place  where  they  dwelt  for 
centuries,  and  from  the  small  number  of  seventy  men  rose 


66 

to  more  than  half  a  million,  is  interesting  in  point  of  history, 
not  only  for  the  events  related  in  the  Bible,  but  also  for  the 
condition  of  the  Jews  there  in  the  middle  and  the  latter  ages. 
Long  before  the  dissolution  of  the  Jewish  state,  a  large  colony 
had  settled  down  in  Egypt  and  established  a  rival  temple 
there  as  we  have  seen..  Two  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
the  Jewish  people  have  always  been — their  love  of  learning, 
and  their  ambition  for  commerce  ;  and  as  Alexandria  offered 
particular  advantages  for  the  exercise  of  both,  it  became  a 
resort  for  them  both  in  times  of  peace  and  of  war.  We  have 
no  room  to  consider  the  condition  of  our  people  in  Africa 
through  the  different  stages  of  our  history,  suffice  it  to  say 
that,  with  the  spread  of  the  Mohammedan  religion  over  Africa, 
many  Jews  accompanied  the  Arabian  hordes  into  their  new 
settlements,  where  they  were  often  subjected  to  much  ill- 
treatment,  while  at  other  times  their  usefulness  was  recog- 
nized and  important  positions  intrusted  to  them.  At  a  later 
period  their  numbers  were  considerably  increased  by  an  influx 
of  emigrants  from  Spain,  who  joined  their  brethren  at  Tripoli, 
Tunis,  Algiers,  Fez,  and  all  over  the  empire  of  Morocco,  where 
they  found  numerous  synagogues  and  seminaries  noted  for 
their  men  of  learning.  Their  intelligence  and  industry 
secured  to  them  the  first  position  in  society  as  merchants, 
as  statesmen,  and  as  men  of  letters,  and  yet  were  they  sub- 
jected to  severe  and  oppressive  laws.  The  most  impor- 
tant branches  of  industry  were  in  their  hands.  They  were 
occupied  chiefly  in  vine-culture  and  fisheries,  in  weaving, 
especially  gold  and  silver-cloth,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
gold  and  silver  articles,  of  which  they  had  a  monopoly,  and 
the  coinage  was,  and  is  even  now,  entirely  intrusted  to  them. 
In  literature  they  distinguished  themselves,  not  only  as 
theologians,  but  as  linguists,  mathematicians,  and  astron- 
omers, particularly  in  the  schools  of  Fez  and  Morocco.  We 
may  mention  the  able  Isaac  Ben  Schescheth  from  Saragossa, 
who  in  1391  was  appointed  by  the  king  as  chief  of  the 


67 

community  at  Algiers.  Cotemporary  with  him  was  Simon 
Ben  Semach  Duran,  a  highly  cultivated  and  liberal-minded 
scholar,  and  adherent  of  Maimonides,  who  administered  to 
his  congregation  for  fifty-three  years.  He  labored  indefat- 
igably  for  the  improvement  of  the  elementary  and  higher 
branches  of  instruction,  and  opposed  the  mystic  speculation 
of  the  Cabalah,  the  interpretations  of  dreams,  and  all  super- 
stitious practices  to  which  the  Jews  of  Barbary  even  now 
attach  much  importance.  During  the  administration  of  that 
worthy  leader,  the  number  of  emigrants  from  Spain  was  so 
great  that  the  use  of  Arabic  was  partly  supplanted  by  the 
Spanish  tongue,  and  to  the  present  day  we  hear  the  Jews  of 
northern  Africa  express  themselves  either  in  bad  Arabic,  in 
corrupt  Spanish,  or  indifferent  Hebrew.  Among  the  labors 
of  this  spiritual  chief  was  his  endeavor  to  establish  union 
among  the  various  congregations  ;  for  it  is  to  be  noted  as  a 
peculiarity  of  the  Jews  in  those  states,  that  the  different 
communities  keep  themselves  quite  distinct  from  each  other  ; 
occupy  different  parts  of  the  city,  each  having  their  own  rabbi, 
who  is  not  only  their  leader  in  religion  and  representative  by 
the  government,  but  at  the  same  time  their  superior  judge  in 
all  civil  matters,  and  from  whose  decision  very  seldom  an 
appeal  is  made.  Thus  the  later  emigrants  from  the  peninsula 
keep  aloof  from  the  earlier  settlers — that  is,  their  respective 
descendants  do — and  both  are  distinguished  from  the 
European  Jews  whom  they  call  Franks.  The  ancient  con- 
gregations enjoy  the  privilege  of  a  smaller  capitation  tax  than 
what  is  laid  upon  the  others.  In  the  second  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  Jews  were  subjected  to  persecution 
and  driven  from  the  country  by  Muley  Archey,  who  succeeded 
in  dethroning  his  brother  Ismael.  The  Jews  of  Morocco 
and  Tetuan  suffered  most,  their  synagogues  were  destroyed 
and  themselves  obliged  to  flee  to  Fez.  And  yet  a  few  years 
later,  Joseph  Ben  Hamoshet  was  appointed  as  Sheik  by  the 
same  prince.  When  Ismael  regained  his  throne,  Don  Jos. 


68 

Toledano  of  Mequinez,  with  whom  Ismael  had  found  a 
refuge,  was  elevated  to  the  position  of  minister  of  state,  and 
sent  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  alliance  between  Morocco  and 
Holland.  The  affairs  of  finance  and  the  negotiations  with 
European  powers  were  almost  entirely  intrusted  to  the  Jews, 
who  were  often  used  as  the  instruments  of  the  emperors  or 
sultans,  and  seldom  allowed  to  die  a  natural  death.  They 
attained  distinction  and  wealth  and  were  then  frequently 
betrayed  into  some  political  snare,  accused  of  misdemeanor, 
and  ordered  to  be  executed.  At  Oran,  which  was  conquered 
by  the  Spaniards  under  Cardinal  Ximenes  in  1507,  the  Jews 
from  Spain  were  permitted  to  reside  upon  sufferance.  They 
were  exemplary  in  their  fidelity  to  the  Spanish  government, 
and  gained  its  esteem  by  their  personal  services.  The 
valiant  families  of  Casino  and  Saporta,  originally  from 
Arragon,  served  the  King  of  Spain  against  his  Moorish 
enemies  in  Africa  ;  so  that  when  in  1669  the  Spanish  governor 
forbade  the  Jews  to  remain  any  longer  in  Oran,  he  granted 
letters  patent  to  the  Saportas,  making  honorable  mention  of 
the  services  that  family  had  rendered,  ending  with  the  remark- 
able declaration,  that  they  were  banished  for  no  other  reason 
than  "  because  it  was  absolutely  impossible  for  his  Catholic 
majesty  to  allow  a  Jew  to  remain  within  his  dominions." 
In  1775,  a  Jewish  nobleman  of  Morocco,  named  Masahod 
de  la  Mar,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  court  of  England, 
a*id  there  treated  with  distinction  and  honor  on  account  of 
his  talents  as  a  diplomat  and  his  courteous  demeanor.  Being 
once  out  on  a  hunting  tour  with  George  III.,  the  ambassador 
saved  his  majesty  from  some  impending  danger  and  was  re- 
warded with  the  uncommon  privilege  of  driving  about  the 
town  with  six-in-hand.  He  was  sent  in  a  similar  mission  to 
Holland,  and  subsequently  established  himself  with  his  family 
at  Amsterdam,  where  he  resided  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
In  1817,  Masado  Ben  Leaho  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
in  Moran ;  Meir  Ben  Manin  of  Fez  obtained  in  1823  the 


69 

general  consulship  of  all  foreign  courts  ;  and  yet  are  those 
who  do  not  attain  to  any  such  distinction  obliged  to  appear 
in  different  dress,  are  not  allowed  to  ride  on  horses  or  mules, 
not  to  use  umbrellas  or  parasols,  which  are  privileges  reserved 
for  certain  dignitaries.  Algiers  has  often  been  the  scene  of 
horrible  persecution  and  suffering  for  the  Jews,  of  which  the 
following  instance  may  serve  as  a  sample.  The  Dey — gov- 
ernor of  the  province — had  issued  an  order  requiring  all 
Mussulmans  to  carry  a  lighted  lamp  when  out  at  night. 
Jews,  however,  were  to  carry  a  light,  like  all  others,  but  were 
not  allowed  to  use  a  lantern.  On  a  stormy  night,  therefore, 
the  poor  Jews  were  exposed  not  only  to  the  danger  of  burning 
their  hands  badly,  but  also  to  the  ridicule  and  amusement 
of  police  agents,  who  delighted  in  inflicting  a  bastinado  or  a 
fine  on  the  offender  whose  light  was  extinguished.  Since 
1830,  however,  when  Algiers  came  into  the  power  of  the 
French,  the  Jews  enjoy  full  liberty  and  equality  of  rights. 
We*  find  in  the  Barbary  states  and  in  the  Ottoman  empire 
generally  a  curious  admixture  of  intolerance  towards  the 
Jews  with  an  appreciation  of  their  talents  and  business 
capacities  which  render  them  indispensable.  Thus  they 
were  rigorously  compelled  to  wear  the  black  turban,  and  a 
different  kind  of  shoes,  so  as  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
Mohammedans ;  they  were  exposed  to  immense  taxations, 
and  to  the  uncivil  treatment  of  the  populace ;  and  yet  many 
were  employed  by  the  sovereigns  of  the  respective  states  in 
important  missions  and  intrusted  with  the  management  of 
state  affairs.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Don 
Samuel  Palache  was  sent  by  the  emperor  of  Morocco  as  his 
agent  to  the  Hague,  where  he  died  in  1616  and  was  followed 
to  the  grave  by  the  Prince  Maurice,  the  States-General,  and 
the  councillors  of  the  United  Provinces. 


JEWS  IN  ITALY. 

As  we  have  previously  spoken  of  the  dwelling  of  Jews  in 
Rome,  it  is  evident  that  the  date  of  their  settlement  in  Italy 
is  very  ancient.  Pompey,  as  we  have  said,  having  invaded 
Jerusalem,  brought  Aristobulus  and  his  family  to  Rome  as 
prisoners,  and  doubtless  many  more  were  made  captives  and 
sold  as  slaves.  They  were,  however,  soon  emancipated,  we 
know  not  by  what  means,  and  that  they  soon  became 
numerous  and  wealthy  is  likewise  evident,  for  we  find  that 
Cicero,  a  cotemporary  of  Pompey,  in  one  of  his  orations 
before  the  senate,  recommends  the  measure  of  forbidding  the 
Jews  to  send  their  annual  contributions  to  Jerusalem,  as  the 
exportation  of  so  much  treasure  was  detrimental  to  the  welfare 
of  Italy.  After  the  dispersion,  when  the  Jews  were  literally 
scattered  to  almost  every  habitable  part  of  the  globe,  emi- 
grants from  Palestine  joined  their  brethren  in  Italy  as  well 
as  in  other  countries,  though  we  have  no  certain  information 
of  their  establishment  at  that  time  in  any  other  provinces  of 
the  Roman  empire.  From  that  period  down  to  the  sixth  or 
seventh  century,  we  almost  lose  sight  of  the  Jews  in  Italy, 
though  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  during  this  interval 
they  were  never  very  flourishing  nor  did  they  suffer  much 
from  the  animosity  of  their  neighbors.  The  Popes  generally, 
with  some  exceptions,  appeared  kindly  disposed  toward  them, 
and  more  than  once  stood  forth  as  their  protectors  when 
menaced  and  ill-treated  by  the  populace  and  the  clergy. 
"Gregory  I.,  in  the  seventh  century,  proved  himself  the  friend 
of  Israel  both  in  his  writings  and  decrees.  By  this  time  the 
Jews  had  spread  over  many  of  the  Papal  States,  and  their 
position  varied;  but  in  commerce  as  well  as  in  literature 
they  improved  rapidly,  and  in  the  twelfth  century  we  find 
them  not  only  possessed  of  great  riches,  but  also  engaged  in 
the  production  of  many  literary  works.  Their  prosperity 


was  owing  mainly  to  their  commercial  enterprise,  but  also  to 
banking  speculations,  and  to  the  money-lending  business 
which  subjected  them  to  the  hatred  of  the  population  ;  yet 
in  this  branch  of  industry  they  were  far  surpassed,  in  Italy 
at  least,  by  the  Lombard  bankers,  so  that  complaints  were 
often  made  that  where  the  Jews  did  not  manage  the  financial 
affairs,  usury  was  carried  on  to  a  more  hateful  excess  by  nom- 
inal Christians.  Persecutions  took  place  from  time  to  time 
in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  they  settled  about  the  year 
1 200.  The  Portuguese  Jewish  historian  Samuel  Usgul  speaks 
of  one  in  particular,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, the  result  of  which  was  the  compulsory  baptism  of  many 
Jews,  and  the  conversion  of  their  synagogue  into  a  church. 
Jewish  literature  prospered  more  in  Italy  than  in  other 
parts  of  Europe  during  the  middle  ages — Spain  always  ex- 
cepted.  Eleazar  Ben  Jacob  Kalir,  a  native  of  Cagliari  in 
Sardinia,  was  distinguished  as  a  poet,  and  many  interesting 
pieces  of  his  composition  have  been  preserved  in  the  Jewish 
liturgies  of  Rome  and  other  communities.  R.  Nathan  Ben 
Jechiel  presided  over  the  Hebrew  academy  at  Rome,  and 
undertook  a  work  which  attained  much  celebrity  in  the 
literary  world,  namely  his  Lexicon  of  the  Talmud,  entitled 
"  Aruch, "  which  evidently  forms  the  ground-work  of  Buxtorf  s 
celebrated  Chaldee,  Talmudic,  and  Rabbinical  Lexicon. 
Elias  Levita,  of  German  birth,  philosopher  and  professor  of 
Grammar  at  Padua  for  thirteen  years,  stands  pre-eminent  as  a 
scholar  among  his  cotemporaries,  and  his  works  are  to  this 
day  much  appreciated.  Many  more  names  of  celebrated 
Italian  scholars  of  the  middle  and  latter  ages  might  be  added 
here,  but  space  does  not  permit.  At  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  new  element 
as  it  were,  streamed  from  Spain  and  Portugal  into  the  Jewish 
population  of  Italy  which  seemed  to  infuse  fresh  life  and 
vigor  into  the  community,  transplanting  there  the  love  of 
science  and  literature  which  they  had  inherited  from  their 


72 

fathers,  and  one  striking  consequence  of  this  emigration 
seems  to  have  been  the  establishment  and  multiplication  of 
printing  presses  in  more  than  one  Italian  city.  No  sooner 
had  the  blessing  of  this  invention  dawned  upon  mankind, 
than  the  Jews  availed  themselves  of  it  for  the  purpose  of  dif- 
fusing that  universal  knowledge  of  which  they  had  been  the 
champions,  and  in  our  libraries  may  be  found  many  beautiful 
specimens  of  printing  executed  within  the  first  half-century 
after  the  invention.  When  in  1471  the  Jews  in  Italy  began 
to  set  up  Hebrew  presses,  their  example  was  soon  followed 
at  Lisbon.  The  first  Hebrew  book  printed  in  the  peninsula 
is  dated,  Lisbon  1485.  It  is  the  "  Sepher  Orach  Chaim" 
(Path  of  Life)  by  R.  Jacob  Ben  Asher.  In  1489  a  Hebrew 
Pentateuch  was  printed  at  Lisbon  ;  and  in  1494  a  second 
press  was  set  up  at  Leira,  which  produced  the  Greater  Pro- 
phets in  the  original.  Three  years  after  this,  the  edict  of 
banishment  was  promulgated  in  Portugal  as  it  had  been  in 
Spain,  and  this  abolished  forever  the  printing  of  Hebrew 
in  the  Spanish  peninsula.  Alas !  the  Inquisition  had  been 
founded — to  rob  and  to  torture  were  the  chief  aims  of  this 
priestly  institution.  In  the  place  of  schools  and  colleges 
were  found  palaces  of  human  woe,  where  fierce  Dominicans 
lived  in  boundless  luxury,  and  where  the  wisest  and  purest 
of  their  species  often  suffered  torture  and  death  at  the 
hands  of  the  most  infamous  and  the  most  degraded.  Knowl- 
edge and  virtue  perished  at  their  approach,  and  Spain  sank 
into  an  almost  irrevocable  decay. 

JEWS  IN  FRANCE. 

In  none  of  the  European  countries  has  the  condition  of  the 
Jews  been  more  variable  than  in  France.  The  first  notice 
found  in  history  of  their  presence  in  that  country  is  under 
the  reign  of  Childebert  I.  (540),  who  ordered  that  in  Paris 
no  Jews  should  be  seen  in  the  street  during  the  whole  of 
Passion  week.  Chilperic  (562),  one  of  the  most  wicked  and 


73 

most  foolish  monarchs  of  his  time,  ill-treated  his  jeweler  Pris- 
cus  and  threw  him  into  prison  because  he  refused  to  adopt 
Christianity.  The  council  at  Paris,  under  Clothair  (615), 
declared  all  Jews  unfit  to  hold  any  government  office  ; 
while  in  Rheims  the  slave-trade  was  forbidden  them ;  and 
among  the  many  inconveniences  they  were  put  to,  not  the 
least  was  that  they  were  required  to  listen  to  the  Bishop's 
wretched  sermons.  King  Dagobert  (628)  issued  an  edict 
that  the  Jews  should  receive  baptism  or  be  banished  from 
the  country  ;  but  this  order  soon  lost  its  effect.  This  king 
had  nevertheless  Jewish  tax-gatherers.  Under  Clovis  II.  we 
find  mention  made  of  the  Jews  with  the  following  circum- 
stances. •  A  capitation  or  poll-tax  having  been  imposed  on 
all  citizens,  some  of  the  poorer  families  sold  their  children 
to  satisfy  this  demand,  but  the  queen  forbade  the  Jews  to 
make  any  such  purchases.  In  the  eighth  century,  however, 
under  the  reigns  of  Pepin  and  of  Charlemagne,  the  Jews 
rose  to  great  opulence  and  power.  Their  commerce  became 
more  and  more  extensive  ;  the  port  of  Marseilles  and  of 
Narbonne  were  crowded  with  their  vessels  which  kept  up  a 
constant  communication  with  the  East.  Their  warehouses 
and  their  Christian  slaves  were  numerous,  and  the  trade 
was  almost  entirely  in  their  hands,  so  that  by  their  influence 
certain  markets  or  fairs  which  were  kept  on  the  Sabbath, 
were  changed  to  other  days.  In  Narbonne  one  of  the  two 
prefects  or  mayors  of  the  city  was  by  prescriptive  right  a 
Jew  ;  and  the  best  and  finest  part  of  the  city  of  Lyons  was 
the  Jewish  quarter.  "  In  that  Christian  city,"  says  Professor 
Milman,  "the  church  seemed  to  veil  its  head  before  the 
synagogue."  The  Jews  were  restricted  only  to  the  observ- 
ance of  certain  state-laws  regarding  intermarriage  and  the 
treatment  of  their  slaves,  but  their  general  prosperity  was 
such  as  to  rouse  the  jealousy  of  their  Christian  neighbors, 
and  especially  the  clergy.  Agobard,  bishop  of  Lyons, 
indignant  at  seeing  the  great  advancement  of  the  Jews,  used 
4 


74 

all  his  influence  to  oppose  them.  He  accused  them  of 
cursing  the  Christians  in  their  synagogue,  of  selling  un- 
wholesome meat  and  spoiled  wine  to  the  Christians  ;  and 
ordered  his  people  to  have  as  little  intercourse  as  possible 
with  the  Jews ;  not  to  sell  them  any  slaves,  not  to  eat  or 
drink  with  them,  nor  to  buy  their  meat  or  wine.  The  Jews, 
feeling  offended  at  this,  complained  to  the  king,  and  the 
bishop  was  comanded  to  withdraw  his  orders.  He  then 
offered  a  petition  to  the  king,  and  tried  by  every  possible 
argument  to  persuade  him  to  withdraw  his  favors  from  the 
Jews,  but  it  was  all  in  vain.  He  then  went  to  Paris  and 
asked  an  audience  with  the  king.  He  was  ordered  to  wait 
in  an  ante-room  -while  his  appeal  was  laid  before  his 
majesty,  and  then  received  permission  to  retire.  Charle- 
magne, whose  wise  and  benevolent  rule  and  whose  greatness 
of  mind  is  universally  admired,  was  very  favorably  disposed 
towards  his  Jewish  subjects.  His  father  had  already 
granted  them  many  privileges,  as  the  right  of  holding 
landed  property,  and  under  his  own  reign  their  prosperity 
considerably  increased.  Wishing  to  send  a  communication 
of  a  strictly  private  nature  to  the  Caliph  Haroun-al-Ra- 
schid,  he  made  choice  of  a  Jew  named  Isaac,  who,  accom- 
panied by  two  Christian  counts,  Sigismund  and  Lanfred, 
was  sent  to  convey  the  imperial  message  from  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  to  Bagdad.  Isaac  spent  four  years  in  the  fulfil- 
ment of  his  mission,  returned  with  very  rich  presents  for 
his  master,  and  acquitted  himself  of  his  duties  with  such 
ability  that  he  was  afterwards  sent  on  a  similar  commission 
to  the  court  of  Persia.  While  we  ascribe  such  fair  treatment 
generally  to  the  good  sense  and  the  justice  of  their  rulers, 
the  chief  cause  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  superior  intelli- 
gence and  education  of  the  Jews  in  a  period  when  nobles 
and  kings,  officers,  and  even  the  clergy  could  not  always 
write  their  own  names.  It  is  because  the  Jews,  from  the 
earliest  period  of  their  history,  always  fostered  knowledge 


75 

and  learning,  that  they  were  selected  for  offices  of  trust 
and  responsiblity  which  others  were  unable  to  fill ;  they  were 
chosen  as  the  physicians,  the  ministers  of  finance,  to  nobles 
and  m  anarchs  because  of  their  superior  ability.  During  the 
reign  of  Louis  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Charlemagne,  the 
Jews  were  so  powerful  that  their  influence  was  courted  by 
the  presents  of  nobles  and  princes.  The  king's  physician, 
named  Zedekiah,  and  the  chief  of  the  Jewish  community 
enjoyed  the  privilege  of  residing  within  the  precints  of  the 
court.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald  the  Jews  still 
maintained  their  power  and  influence ;  but  when,  about  the 
latter  part  of  the  ninth  century,  the  weak-minded  Louis  II. 
ascended  the  throne,  and  the  feudal  system  became  more 
firmly  established;  when  the  country  was  virtually  ruled  by 
barons,  counts,  and  dukes,  who  paid  no  allegiance  to  their 
king,  the  Jews  were  no  longer  under  the  protection  of  a 
powerful  sovereign,  the  clergy  began  more  and  more  to 
assert  its  authority," and  the  Jews  gradually  lost  the  advan- 
tages they  had  so  long  enjoyed.  When  Philip  Augustus 
ascended  the  throne  (1197),  he  passed  a  decree  by  which  all 
debts  due  to  the  Jews  were  cancelled,  and  the  pledges 
ordered  to  be  surrendered;  and  shortly  afterwards  an  edict 
followed  which  confiscated  all  landed  property  of  the  Jews, 
and  commanded  them  instantly  to  depart  from  the  kingdom. 
They  were  then  re-admitted  upon  certain  conditions,  one  of 
which  was  the  obligation  to  wear  a  little  wheel  upon  their  dress 
as  an  ignominious  distinction.  These  unjust  and  barbarous 
decrees  were  repeated  by  his  successors,  Louis  VIII.  and 
Louis  IX.,  and  by  others  who  alternately  readmitted  them 
when  in  need  of  funds  and  drove  them  out  again  after  they 
had  plundered  them. 

The  literary  attainments  of  the  Jews  in  France  were  never 
equal  to  those  of  the  Spanish,  yet  the  French  Jewish  schools 
produced  some  very  eminent  men,  and  literature  was  more 
cultivated  in  the  southern  provinces  than  elsewhere.  Paris, 


76 

Montpellier,  Marseilles,  Narbonne,  and  Lunel  were  promi- 
nent seats  of  learning.  Among  the  most  distinguished 
theological  doctors  which  these  seminaries  produced  we  may 
name  R.  Gershon,  a  thorough  Talmudist,  who  distinguished 
himself  particularly  by  his  instrumentality  in  having  a 
synodal  act  passed  concerning  the  Levirate  law,*  by  which 
it  was  decided  that  the  marriage  or  dismissal  of  a  brother's 
widow  be  not  optional  with  the  levir,  but  that  in  such  cases 
the  ceremony  of  Chalitsah  always  take  place.  R.  Solomon 
Ben  Isaac,  better  known  by  the  initials  of  his  name,  Raschi, 
was  born  at  Troyes  and  is  famous,  not  so  much  for  deep 
research  or  independence  of  thought,  as  for  his  assiduous 
labors  in  writing  commentaries  on  all  the  books  of  the  Bible 
and  on  all  of  the  Talmud.  Like  many  of  the  great  Rabbis 
of  the  middle  ages,  he  was  a  great  traveller,  visited  Germany, 
Italy,  Greece,  Russia,  Tartary,  Persia,  and  Palestine;  and 
is  held  in  high  esteem  as  the  u  chief  of  commentators."  He 
died  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  buried 
in  Prague,  Bohemia.  R.  Solomon  of  Montpellier  is  distin- 
guished as  having  been  the  leader  among  those  Rabbis  who 
so  strenuously  exerted  themselves  to  oppose  the  works  of 
Maimonides,  especially  his  Moreh  Nebuchim.  The  French 
seminaries  took  the  part  of  the  traditional  school,  against 
the  majority  of  those  in  Spain  and  in  Provence.  Another 
French  rabbi  of  no  ordinary  celebrity  was  David  Ben  Joseph 
Kimchi,  descended  from  a  Spanish  family  which  had  pro- 
duced many  learned  men,  who  gained  great  reputation  as 
linguists  and  grammarians.  This  R.  David  Kimchi  under- 
took and  succeeded  in  the  laudable  task  of  reconciling  the 
contending  parties  in  the  case  of  Maimonides  and  his  works; 
and  lastly,  we  name  the  excellent  poet  Judah  Alcharisi, 
whose  work  exhibits  such  warmth  of  expression,  lively 
"imagination,  and  such  versatility  of  style  and  taste. 

*  See  our  explanation  of  that  law  posted. 


77 


JEWS  IN  GERMANY. 

When  the  Roman  empire  spread  its  power  over  nearly 
all  the  nations  of  Europe,  many  Jews  who  were  Roman 
citizens,  together  with  Christians,  settled  in  different  parts 
of  the  vast  realm,  and  of  course  also  in  Germany.  An  edict 
of  the  Emperor  Constantine  shows  that  in  the  year  321  they 
were  already  established  at  Cologne,  where  they  soon  be- 
came numerous  and  prosperous  in  commerce,  while  they 
continued  to  enjoy  many  important  privileges.  In  the 
course  of  succeeding  centuries,  from  the  fourth  to  the  tenth, 
their  condition  varied  according  as  their  rulers  were  kindly 
or  unfavorably  disposed  towards  them,  but  no  occurrences 
of  great  importance  seem  to  have  affected  their  position. 
But  when  in  the  tenth  century  Germany  became  an  inde- 
pendent state,  the  position  of  the  Jews  assumed  a  different 
aspect.  At  the  establishment  of  the  German  empire  it  was 
laid  down  as  a  fixed  rule  that  the  Jews  and  all  they  pos- 
sessed were  to  be  considered  as  property  of  the  State,  and 
as  such  they  and  their  goods  could  be  sold,  pledged,  or 
otherwise  disposed  of,  as  the  interest  of  the  state  required ; 
and  this  power  was  vested  in  the  emperor  as  liege-lord  of 
the  realm,  wherefore  the  Jews  were  designated  by  the  name 
of  u  special  servants  of  the  imperial  chamber."  This  was 
by  no  means  intended  to  imply  anything  like  a  state  of 
slavery  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  denoted  an  exemption  from  any 
other  authority  except  the  imperial  power,  and  that  at  the 
same  time  their  rights  and  privileges  were  secured,  so  that 
no  prince  or  other  power  could  encroach  thereon  without 
the  emperor's  express  permission. 

On  the  accession  of  a  new  emperor  to  the  throne,  the  Jews 
were  required  to  show  their  obeisance  in  welcoming  the  new 
monarch,  and  likewise  in  Italy,  whenever  a  new  pope  was 
inaugurated.  This  latter  ceremony  was  performed  by  a  de- 


78 

putation  of  the  Jewish  community  offering  the  pontiff  a 
scroll  of  the  law  (Sepher)  with  an  address  in  Hebrew,  to 
which  the  pope,  returning  the  scroll,  answered  in  Latin. 
Neither  one  understood  the  other,  but  such  was  the  cus- 
tom. 

The  internal  or  religious  affairs  of  the  Jews  were  not  in- 
terfered with  as  long  as  they  came  not  in  contact  with  the 
rules  of  government.     This,  after  all,  was  not  so  bad  in 
theory.     But  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  new  situation 
assigned  to  the  Jews  was  but  part  of  the  feudal  system  just 
then   introduced  into  Europe  by  the  German  and   Gothic 
tribes ;  an  institution  by  which  a  country  was  parceled  out 
to  numerous  barons,  dukes,  or  other  noblemen  who  held 
their  respective  portions  as  a  loan  from  the  king  or  emperor 
to  whom  they  were  responsible,  and  for  which  privilege 
they  were  to  yield  a  certain  annual  tribute.     With  these 
titles  granted  by  the  sovereign  to  his  vassals  the   right   of 
holding  Jews  with  it  was  sometimes  granted,  and  sometimes 
not.     Now  although  the  Jews  in   Germany  seldom  had  to 
complain  of  oppression  proceeding  directly  from  the  em- 
peror,  they  were  subject  to  the  caprices  and  often  to  the 
extortions  and  cruel  treatment  of  the  nobles  under  whose 
immediate  control  they  were,  without  having  an  opportu- 
nity of  laying  their  complaints  before  his   majesty.     In  this 
manner  were  the  Jews  in  Germany,  and  likewise  in   other 
European  countries,  from  the  eleventh  till  the  sixteenth 
century,  though  nominally  under  royal  protection,  subject 
to  the  most  cruel  oppression  ;  existing  only  for  the  benefit 
of  their  masters,  for  the  payment  of  taxes  and  fines  and 
all  sorts  of  extortions.     Justly  has  this  period  of  our  history 
been  termed    "  the  iron  age  of  Judaism."     The  records  of 
these  inhuman  barbarities,  unheard-of  cruelties  and  outra- 
geous crimes,  committed,  too,  under  the  name  of  religion, 
and  of  which  every  honest  Christian  now  feels  ashamed, 
constitute  the  blackest    pages  in  the  history  of    mankind, 


79 

and  baffle  all  description.  Before  attempting  to  give  any 
instances  of  these  atrocities  practised  on  the  Jews,  not  only 
in  Germany,  but  generally,  we  will  state  the  causes  that  led 
to  them,  which  were  chiefly  two  :  Hatred  on  account  of 
difference  in  religion,  and  jealousy  of  the  riches  which  the 
Jews  always  knew  how  to  accumulate.  As  true  religion  and 
rational  religion  is  a  blessing  to  man,  so  when  carried 
to  the  excess  of  fanaticism  it  becomes  a  curse  ;  and  this  is 
always  the  case  when  religion  is  not  supported  by  enlight- 
ened education.  In  those  dark  ages,  when  the  very  minis- 
ters and  teachers  of  religion  were  ignorant  of  almost  every- 
thing except  the  dogmas  of  their  faith,  their  limited  under- 
standing could  not  grasp  the  grand  idea  that  the  essence  of 
religion  is  the  aspiration  after  the  perfect  and  sublime,  and 
its  end  the  happiness  of  man  ;  they  believed  that  God  could 
be  served  only  in  that  particular  way  they  were  taught,  and 
that  all  who  held  different  views  were  God's  enemies,  and 
to  destroy  them  was  the  most  meritorious  act  they  could 
perform.  Under  these  erroneous  impressions,  ignorant 
preachers  harangued  their  still  more  ignorant  audiences, 
teaching  them  that  it  was  their  duty  to  clear  the  community 
of  all  unbelievers,  and  often  inciting  them  to  deeds  of  vio- 
lence. The  populace  is  easily  put  in  commotion  when 
their  political  or  religious  prejudices  are  stirred  up,  and  the 
flame  is  always  fed  by  the  prospect  of  plunder.  In  ordin- 
ary cases,  however,  the  mob  is  opposed  by  the  better  classes 
and  nobility,  but  when  the  latter  find  it  to  their  interest  to 
encourage  rather  than  allay  the  sedition,  the  tumult  will  run 
its  full  course  until  passion  have  exhausted  itself.  As  the 
Jews  were  excluded  from  all  honorable  pursuits,  nothing 
was  left  them  but  the  sordid  business  of  money-lending  at 
the  highest  possible  rate  of  interest  they  could  obtain  (50 
or  60  per  cent  per  annum  was  no  unusual  figure).  The 
nobles  who  thought  all  business  and  trade,  and  every  pro- 
fession except  the  military,  below  their  dignity,  who  lived — 


8o 

as  nobles  always  live — on  the  toil  and  products  of  others, 
and  often  wanted  large  sums  of  money  to  keep  up  their  idle 
and  luxurious  mode  of  living  ;  who  especially  wasted  im- 
mense sums  to  carry  on  the  wicked  crusades,  of  which  we 
shall  speak  further  on,  these  nobles  were  indebted  to  the 
Jews  to  a  very  great  extent,  had  pledged  to  them  the  great- 
est part  of  their  property  which  they  were  unable  to  redeem, 
and  were  ignoble  enough  to  wish  to  have  their  debts  can- 
celled by  any  means.  Thus  hatred  and  prejudice,  jealousy 
and  avarice  combined  to  arouse  and  maintain  the  bitter 
feeling  against  the  Jews.  To  form  a  better  idea  of  the  po- 
sition of  the  Jews  in  Germany,  we  begin  by  stating  that  as 
a  rule  they  were  excluded  from  holding  any  civil  office,  and 
altogether  from  military  service  ;  were  not  allowed  to  hold 
landed  property,  nor  to  practise  as  physicians  or  apotheca- 
ries, and  as  they  were  not  allowed  to  hold  slaves,  they  could 
neither  engage  in  agriculture.  In  short,  almost  every  hon- 
orable and  legitimate  occupation  was  forbidden  them.  To 
these  rules  exceptions  were  often  made,  for  which  the  Jews 
sometimes  paid  heavily.  Some  emperors,  more  indulgent 
than  others,  did  not  always  enforce  the  law,  and  often  in- 
trusted them  with  responsible  positions  ;  but  under  these 
restraints  only  were  they  suffered  to  live,  and  in  most  cases 
were  obliged  to  occupy  a  separate  quarter  of  the  city.  It 
will  be  easily  understood  now  that,  under  such  circumstan- 
ces, it  needed  but  little  to  bring  the  populace  in  open  assault 
against  the  oppressed  Jews,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  real 
offences  that  could  be  laid  to  their  charge,  to  bring  for- 
ward some  imaginary  ones.  And  what  is  quite  remarkable 
here  is  the  absurdity,  the  folly  which  was  joined  to  the 
wickedness  of  the  accusations.  It  is  too  well  known  that 
the  Jews  religiously  abstain  from  the  use  of  "  all  blood  " 
which  is  most  strictly  and  repeatedly  forbidden  in  the 
Mosaic  laws.  Yet  a  hundred  times  were  they  accused  of 
killing  children  in  order  to  use  their  blood  in  Passover-cakes, 


8i 

which  it  was  alleged  Jews  required  for  that  purpose.  When  a 
city  or  territory  was  visited  by  a  pestilence,  from  which  the 
Jews  suffered  alike  with  their  fellows,  they  were  accused  of 
having  poisoned  the  wells,  though  they  themselves  drew  water 
from  the  same  sources ;  and  incredible,  preposterous  as  it 
may  sound,  they  were  once,  in  real  earnest,  accused  of  having 
poisoned  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  So  was  every  public 
calamity  or  visitation  attributed  to  the  direct  doings  of  the 
Jews  or  to  their  magical  spells.  Another  absurd  and  oft- 
repeated  accusation  was,  the  Jews  had  stolen  the  Host,  and 
pierced  *it  so  as  to  draw  blood  from  it.  The  misery,  the 
woe,  the  sufferings  brought  on  the  Jews  by  these  monstrous 
charges  cannot  be  fully  described.  Only  a  few  data.  In 
1 283,  the  Jews  of  Maintz  were  charged  with  the  murder  of  a 
child  for  the  purpose  mentioned,  whereupon  they  were  as- 
saulted, plundered,  and  ten  innocents  killed.  Two  years 
later  a  similar  charge  was  made  in  Munich,  with  more  per- 
nicious result.  All  efforts  of  the  police  to  quell  the  sedi- 
tion being  ineffectual,  the  Jews  were  advised  to  take  refuge 
in  their  synagogue.  The  mob  set  the  building  on  fire  and 
1 80  persons  perished.  A  like  accusation  made  in  Paris  in 
1238,  and  disseminated  in  various  towns,  cost  2500  Jews 
their  lives.  In  Ratisbon,  Bavaria,  where  the  Jews  had  lived 
for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  accumulated  wealth,  and 
improved  the  city  with  fine  dwellings,  and  where  their  num- 
ber almost  equalled  the  Christian  population,  the  jealousy 
of  the  impoverished  populace  and  their  thirst  for  the  Jews' 
gold  prompted  them  to  accuse  the  latter  of  having  killed 
seven  children  in  order  to  use  their  blood  for  Passover. 
The  Jews'  houses  were  searched  and  blood  stains  pointed 
out;  their  owners  were  put  to  the  torture,  and  a  general 
massacre  and  pillaging  ensued,  in  which  all,  the  higher  and 
lower  classes,  participated.  Not  only  their  houses,  schools, 
and  synagogues  were  destroyed,  even  the  hallowed  reposi- 
tory of  the  dead  was  not  too  sacred  for  the  villains'  hands. 


82 

No  Jew  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  city,  and  a  little  chapel 
was  erected  on  the  ruins  of  the  principal  synagogue.  Simi- 
lar scenes  occured  in  various  other  cities  and  towns,  too 
many  and  too  horrible  to  relate.  In  1348,  a  pestilence 
broke  out  and  spread  over  nearly  all  Europe.  The  Jews, 
perhaps  in  consequence  of  their  dietary,  had  cleanly  habits, 
suffered  less.  They  were  suspected  as  being  the  cause  of 
the  evil  and  were  persecuted.  In  Basle  a  number  of  them 
were  placed  in  a  large  hogshead,  closed  up,  then  set  on  fire, 
and  the  vessel  sent  to  float  on  the  river.  In  other  parts  of 
Switzerland  all  the  Jews  were  guillotined  or  otherwise 
massacred.  From  Switzerland  the  mania  spread  to  Alsace, 
and  the  magistrates  of  Strasburg  refusing  to  yield  to  the  de- 
mand of  the  ruffians,  were  compelled  to  resign,  and  the  new 
mayor  gratified  his  constituents  by  having  2000  Jews  burnt 
alive  in  the  market  place,  and  dividing  their  property  among 
the  poor  citizens.  Thousands  and  thousands  were  thus 
launched  into  eternity,  and  neither  the  monarchs,  the  ma- 
gistrates, nor  even  the  clergy  were  able  to  stay  the  mad  fury. 
Also  the  accusation  of  stealing  and  abusing  the  Host  often 
spread  desolation  and  death  in  the  Jewish  circles.  In  the 
cities  of  Wiirzburg,  Nuremberg,  and  other  towns  of  Bavaria 
and  Austria,  the  sacrifice  was  not  less  than  100,000  souls. 
We  will  give  only  one  particular  case  to  conclude  this  dark 
chapter.  About  the  end  of  the  i4th  century,  it  is  related", 
a  Jew  named  Jonathan,  living  at  Enghien,  France,  bribed  a 
poor  Christian  to  steal  the  Host  for  him.  When  the  Jew 
got  possession  of  it,  he  assembled  his  friends  to  ridicule  and 
insult  th'e  sacred  article,  but  they  did  not  then  injure  it. 
Later,  Jonathan  moved  to  Brussels,  and  on  Good  Friday 
the  Host  was  brought  to  the  synagogue  and  there  treated 
with  the  grossest  indignity,  and — so  runs  the  story — 
when  they  pierced  it  with  their  knives,  the  blood  flowed 
from  it  in  profusion.  Having  satisfied  their  vengeance,  the 
holy  thing  was  intrusted  to  a  woman  to  take  it  to  Cologne, 


83 

but  this  woman,  having  been  secretly  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, betrayed  the  trust  and  informed  the  clergy  of  the 
whole  affair.  Thereupon  the  Jews  were  arrested,  put  to  the 
torture,  condemned  to  have  their  flesh  torn  from  them  by 
red-hot  pincers,  and  then  be  burned  alive.  This  story  is 
even  yet  circulated  and  swallowed  whole  by  true  Catholics, 
and  in  the  city  of  Brussels,  as  late  as  1820,  it  has  been 
commemorated  with  great  satisfaction  as  a  triumph  of  the 
Catholic  religion. 

In  1613,  in  Frankfort,  three  hot-headed  vagabonds,  Fett- 
milch,  Gerngross,  and  Schopt,  after  having  caused  consid- 
erable disturbance  in  the  community  by  inciting  the  peo- 
ple to  demand  certain  changes  in  the  municipal  govern- 
ment, proceeded  to  demand  also  a  public  reading  of  the 
statute  concerning  the  Jews,  wherein  it  was  laid  down 
among  other  restrictions  that,  during  the  time  of  the  annual 
fair,  the  Jews  were  obliged  to  wear  a  certain  mark  on  their 
dress,  not  to  appear  in  public  on  the  Christian  holidays,  nor 
to  be  seen  at  public  places  of  amusement;  not  to  keep 
Christian  servants  ;  to  make  sworn  statements  of  their  per- 
sonal property  and  business  transaction ;  and  many  similar 
oppressive  regulations.  On  the  pth  of  January,  some  des- 
peradoes entered  the  Jewish  quarter  with  threats  of  violence, 
bat  they  were  yet  kept  in  awe  by  the  authorities.  The  riot- 
ers, however,  gained  in  numbers  and  strength.  Repeated 
menaces  were  held  out  also  against  the  city-council,  and 
on  the  6th  of  May,  on  the  occasion  of  an  election  of  a  new 
mayor,  the  mob  surrounded  the  city-hall  and  demanded  the 
keys  of  the  treasury  which  were  given  up  to  them.  Even 
the  imperial  troops  could  scarcely  overawe  the  multitude. 
Several  mandates  for  the  arrest  and  punishment  of  the  of- 
fenders were  proclaimed,  but  hardly  heeded.  On  the  22d 
of  August,  the  robbers  again  entered  the  Jewish  quarter, 
committed  fearful  depredations,  destroying  the  best  property 
and  stealing  all  they  could  carry  away.  This  general  pillag- 


84 

ing  went  on  for  some  time,  until  at  last  new  troops  arrived 
to  enforce  order.  On  February  28th,  1616,  Fettmilch  and 
his  consorts  were  arrested  and  executed  ;  having  first  two 
fingers  cut  off,  were  then  beheaded  and  quartered  ;  the 
parts  of  the  body  exposed  on  the  four  principal  streets  ; 
and  the  head  stuck  on  a  pole ;  and  on  the  place  of  execu- 
tion a  column  was  placed  with  an  inscription  as  a  warning 
for  offenders  in  future.  Some  1400  Jews  who  had  been 
driven  from  the  city  were,  by  imperial  order,  brought  back 
in  procession,  with  banners  and  music  and  under  military 
escort;  and  their  losses,  estimated  at  175,919  florins,  refunded 
by  the  city,  and  the  day  (20th  Adar)  henceforth  celebrated 
as  a  second  Purim.  A  similar  attack  was  made  at  this  same 
period  (April,  1615)  on  the  Jews  of  Worms.  Several 
corporations  joined  in  a  petition  to  the  magistrate  that  the 
Jews  might  be  altogether  expelled.  Not  finding  these 
wishes  gratified,  they  assembled  on  Good  Friday  and  an- 
nounced to  the  Jews,  whose  community  numbered  14,000, 
that  they  were  to  leave  the  city  immediately,  if  they  would 
escape  pillage  and  murder  ;  allowing  them,  however,  to  carry 
away  their  property.  No  sooner  had  the  Jews  left  their 
quarters,  when  the  populace  entered  and  began  their  work 
of  destruction  by  tearing  down  a  synagogue  which  had  stood 
767  years,  desecrated  the  burying  ground,  and  committed 
further  depredation's.  Directly  after  Easter,  the  imperial 
troops  came  forward,  headed  by  one  of  the  princes  of  the 
royal  house,  who  punished  the  ring-leaders,  and  notwith- 
standing all  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  municipality,  re- 
instated the  Jews,  who  on  the  9th  of  January  took  posses- 
sion again  of  their  remaining  property. 

THE  CRUSADES. 

The  crushing  effect  of  the  institution  of  the  Crusades 
upon  the  Jews  in  Europe  was  overwhelming  indeed.  It 
was  the  beginning  of  a  long  continuance  of  oppression, 


85 

t 

murders,  and  tortures  which  lasted  for  two  centuries. 
About  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  some  Christians 
were  inflamed  with  the  idea  of  gaining  possession  of  Pales- 
tine, because  it  was  the  place  where  Christ  was  born  and 
buried  ;  they  proposed  to  dispossess  the  infidels,  as  they 
called  the  Mohammedans,  of  that  sacred  spot,  and  to  exter- 
minate all  enemies  of  Christianity.  Great  results  are  gen- 
erally brought  about  by  small  beginnings.  A  fanatical 
monk  of  Amiens,  Peter  the  Hermit,  having  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Jerusalem,  on  which  occasion  he  met  with  diffi- 
culties and  with  insult,  returned  emboldened  with  the  thought 
of  snatching  the  tomb  of  the  crucified  Nazarene  from  the 
hands  of  its  illegitimate  possessors,  and  making  Christianity 
the  ruling  faith,  the  only  religion  of  the  world.  He  was 
encouraged  in  his  project  by  the  pope,  promulgated  his 
views  among  the  multitude,  and  the  success  of  his  enthusi- 
astic harangues  was  proportionate  to  the  boldness  of  his 
scheme  and  the  '  ignorance  of  his  auditors.  The  mania 
spread  over  all  Europe  ;  more  than  six  millions  of  people, 
says  a  contemporary  authority,  professed  themselves  the 
soldiers  of  the  cross.  In  1096,  the  first  expedition  was 
set  on  foot  and  headed  by  count  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 
Nothing  was  too  dear,  nothing  too  sacred  to  be  applied  to 
this  grand  purpose  ;  the  highest  and  the  lowest  alike  ex- 
hausted their  means  in  contributing  to  the  support  of  the 
Crusades  ;  and  many  a  thousand  the  Jews  must  have  made 
in  supplying  the  adventurers  with  funds  and  with  the  ne- 
cessary articles  ;  but  little  did  they  think  of  the  dark  cloud 
that  hung  over  them.  While  these  good  Christians  were 
busy  preparing  themselves  for  the  holy  war,  it  occurred  to 
them  that,  before  going  to  Palestine,  they  ought  to  get  rid  of 
the  unbelievers  who  were  near,  and  among  them  the  Jews, 
the  murderers  of  the  Lord.  Accordingly  the  above-named 
Peter,  Walter  the  Penniless,  and  one  named  Gottschalk, 
at  the  head  of  a  horde  of  fanatics,  opened  the  campaign 


86 

« 

with  a  massacre  of  the  Jews.  They  marched  on  Trier 
(Treves)  and  began  a  merciless  slaughter  of  all  Jews  they 
could  find.  Driven  to  desperation,  men  slew  their  children 
and  themselves  rather  than  give  themselves  up  into  the 
hands  of  their  murderers  ;  women  tied  large  stones  to  their 
necks  and  threw  themselves  into  the  river.  A  few  sought 
refuge  in  the  castle  of  Bishop  Egelbert,  where  the  prelate 
took  occasion  of  reproaching  them  with  their  unbelief,  and 
promised  them  protection  on  condition  of  baptism,  to  which 
in  their  agony  they  assented.  The  same  bloody  scenes  were 
repeated  in  almost  all  cities  on  the  Rhine,  in  Metz,  Cologne, 
Maintz,  Worms,  and  Spire.  In  Cologne  two  hundred 
were  dragged  from  the  river  and  cut  in  pieces.  In  Worms 
they  took  refuge  in  the  bishop's  palace,  but  it  was  besieged, 
and  to  escape  worse  horrors,  they  slew  each  other.  In  Spire 
they  defended  themselves  valiantly,  and  then  succeeded  in 
buying  the  protection  of  the  bishop  for  a  large  sum.  A  re- 
petition of  the  tragedy  was  performed  in  the  cities  on  the 
Maine  and  the  Danube  by  a  troop  under  Count  Emice. 
The  emperor  Henry  IV.  was  one  of  the  very  few  who  showed 
some  humanity  for  the  unfortunate ;  in  an  edict  issued  from 
Ratisbon  he  permitted  those  that  had  been  involuntarily 
baptized  to  return  to  their  religion,  and  restored  to  them 
some  of  their  property.  About  this  time  many  Jews  fled 
to  Silesia,  Moravia,  and  Poland,  where  their  numbers  in- 
creased with  incredible  rapidity.  The  Jews  had  half  a  cen- 
tury of  respite.  In  1 146  began  the  second  crusade,  to  which 
the  Western  Emperor  Conrad  III.,  and  Louis  VII.,  king  of 
France,  lent  their  royal  support.  An  unworthy  monk,  Ru- 
dolph, stirred  up  the  populace  of  Cologne,  Strasburg,  and 
other  towns  of  Germany  to  renew  the  horrible  atrocities 
against  the  "remnant  of  Israel,"  and  the  scenes  of  murder 
and  robbery  under  the  cloak  of  religion  were  repeated.  On 
this  occasion,  however,  Conrad  III.,  though  in  favor  of  the 
expedition  to  Palestine,  showed  mercy  to  the  Jews  and  en- 


8? 
• 
deavored  to   protect  them  ;    so  did   Frederick  II. ;    Pope 

Eugene  III.  espoused  the  same  humane  part;  and  indeed 
more  than  once  the  voice  of  humanity  issued  from  Rome 
by  the  mouth  of  her  popes,  such  as  Gregory  IX.,  in  1240, 
and  Innocent  IV.,  in  1250,  who  are  specially  noticed  in  plead- 
ing the  cause  of  the  Jews  with  nations  and  kings.  But  the 
most  sincere  and  the  most  eloquent  advocate  who  pleaded 
the  cause  of  the  oppressed  Jews  before  the  beginning  of  the 
second  crusade  was  the  celebrated  Bernard,  Abbot  of  Clair- 
vaux,  a  man  eminent  for  the  spirituality  of  his  writings,  as 
well  as  for  the  sanctity  of  his  life.  His  great  merits,  which 
had  secured  him  almost  universal  respect,  enabled  him  to 
exercise  considerable  influence  both  in  the  Church  and  over 
the  crowned  heads  of  Europe.  We  regret  not  having  room 
to  reproduce  his  excellent  exhortation  to  the  clergy  which 
is  well  worth  perusing.  These  Crusades  were  repeated 
from  time  to  time;  the  sixth  and  last  was  in  1248  under  St. 
Louis,  king  of  France,  and  the  horrors  they  brought  upon 
the  Jews  are  incalculable;  yet,  notwithstanding  the  ill  con- 
sequences it  bore  to  our  nation  and  to  the  whole  world,  the 
question  whether  the  Crusades  exercised  a  baneful  or  a 
beneficial  influence  on  the  state  of  society  has  engaged  the 
attention  of  some  eminent  scholars,  some  of  whom  main- 
tain that  they  have  been  favorable  to  the  intellectual,  com- 
mercial, and  political  interests  of  the  world,  by  establishing 
a  general  intercourse  between  nations,  and  by  breaking  up 
the  feudal  system  which,  it  is  alleged,  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  civil  liberty  now  enjoyed  by  all  European  communi- 
ties ;  while  others  hold  that  the  evil  results  of  the  Crusades 
far  overbalanced  the  good  that  followed  from  it ;  consider- 
ing the  great  waste  of  life  and  labor  without  an  adequate 
return  ;  the  affliction  and  privation  caused  to  almost  every 
family  in  Europe  during  two  centuries  ;  and  withdrawing 
the  attention  of  the  inhabitants  from  all  legitimate  pursuit 
of  industry.  There  are  many  other  points  of  consideration 


88     . 

brought  forward  by  the  contending  parties,  for  which  we 
have  no  room.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  French  Institute, 
in  1806,  proposed  the  question  as  a  subject  of  general  com- 
petition to  the  learned  of  all  countries,  and  the  prize  was 
awarded  jointly  to  the  essays  of  Heeren  and  Choiseul 
d'Aillecourt,  who  think  that  the  Crusades,  in  spite  of  their  evil 
consequences,  have  materially  contributed  to  the  advance- 
ment of  learning  and  civilization  in  Europe.  (But  Palestine  is 
after  all  in  the  hands  of  Mohammedans.)  When  those  holy 
wars  had  terminated,  another  species  of  religious  insanity 
sprang  into  existence  which  failed  not  to  have  its  baleful 
result  upon  the  Jewish  population,  and  which  is  especially 
worth  mentioning  on  account  of  its  eccentricity.  In  the 
middle  of  the  i4th  century,  a  set  of  mad  enthusiasts  was 
formed  at  Cremona  in  Italy,  and  in  a  few  years  the  conta- 
gion spread  throughout  Europe.  The  name  of  the  sect 
was  Flagellants,  from  flagettum,  a  whip.  Believing  that  they 
could  make  their  peace  with  God  only  by  severe  penance, 
they  went  about  the  streets  in  procession,  naked  from  the 
loins  upward,  with  high  pointed  hats  partly  drawn  over  the 
face  and  on  which  a  red  cross  was  painted ;  switches  in 
hand,  with  which  they  scourged  themselves  till  the  blood 
flowed  freely.  Had  their  religious  ceremonies  been  con- 
fined to  these  self-inflictions,  we  might  look  upon  them  with 
mere  ridicule,  but  they  thought  their  services  incomplete 
without  an  intermixture  of  massacre  and  plunder  among 
the  Jews.  Accordingly  they  entered  the  streets  of  Frank- 
fort and  other  cities,  and  made  a  furious  assault  upon  the 
enemies  of  Christ,  who,  however,  seized  their  weapons  in 
self-defense,  and  a  terrible  slaughter  ensued.  The  citizens 
interfered,  and  the  Flagellants  were  driven  back;  still  the 
Jews  refused  to  lay  down  their  weapons,  fearing,  presum- 
ably, that  the  mob  would  take  advantage  of  the  occasion  to 
commit  further  depredations.  Then  a  skirmish  between 
them  and  the  citizens  followed,  the  alarm  was  sounded,  the 


89 

city-hall  set  on  fire,  and  many  Jews  lost  their  lives.  In  the 
mean  time  many  of  the  rich  had  escaped  with  all  the  valu- 
ables they  could  carry.  The  emperor  appropriated  the  re- 
mainder of  their  goods  to  the  use  of  the  city,  with  the  pri- 
vilege, however,  to  the  fugitives  to  receive  them  back  if  they 
chose  to  return,  and  moreover  a  remission  of  their  taxes 
for  two  years,  which  proves  the  justness  of  the  Jewish 
cause. 

JEWS  IN  ENGLAND.    JEWISH  WEALTH  AND  USURY. 

The  Jews  are  known  to  have  lived  in  England  already  in 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  and  their  condition  in 
that  country  was  very  similar  to  that  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, with  this  difference,  that  the  kings  of  the  latter  two 
countries  frequently  opposed  the  cruelties  practised  on  the 
Jews  by  the  churchmen  and  trie  populace,  while  the  kings 
of  England  were  themselves  foremost  in  tormenting  their 
oppressed  subjects  and  draining  from  them  their  ill-gotten 
gain.  Edward  the  Confessor  declared  the  Jews,  by  their 
own  request  probably,  to  be  the  property  of  the  king,  the 
same  as  in  France.  Many  of  them  seem  to  have  come  over 
to  England  from  Normandy  with  William  the  Conqueror, 
who  introduced  the  feudal  system,  but  issued  no  special 
laws  concerning  the  Jews.  We  find  especial  mention  of 
them  made  in  the  time  of  William  Rufus,  the  second  king 
of  the  Norman  line.  This  king,  himself  the  enemy  of  the 
clergy  and  very  indifferent  towards  the  Church,  permitted 
the  Jews  to  defend  their  religion  in  public  as  much  as  they 
pleased.  What,  however,  he  liked  best  in  them  was  their 
wealth,  which,  for  his  own  sake  no  less  than  theirs,  he  gave 
them  every  opportunity  to  amass,  especially  from  the  clergy. 
At  that  time  the  Jews  possessed  in  London  and  elsewhere 
considerable  mansions,  resembling  the  castles  of  the  nobil- 
ity. The  greatest  part  of  Oxford  belonged  to  them,  and 
streets  were  named  after  them. 


9o 

Now,  before  continuing  the  thread  of  our  history  let  us 
stop  awhile  to  consider  how  it  was  possible  that  the  Jews, 
amidst  their  deep  degradation,  cruel  oppression,  and  almost 
entire  exclusion,  should  still  have  been  able  to  gather  up 
such  immense  wealth,  not  only  in  England,  but  everywhere, 
which  must  appear  incredible  unless  we  take  a  view  of  the 
general  state  of  things  in  those  ages.  In  the  history  of 
France,  several  instances  are  recorded  of  enormous  special 
taxes  having  been  laid  on  the  Jews  to  replenish  the  ex- 
hausted exchequer.  At  one  time,  the  most  valuable  estates 
of  Paris  and  of  the  whole  of  France  were  mortgaged  to  the 
Jews.  Paris  of  the  middle  ages  was  almost  a  Jewish  city  ; 
the  dawn  of  its  magnificence  was  due  to  Jewish  capitalists. 
Their  wealth  adorned  its  narrow  streets  with  fine  mansions, 
and  cultivated  its  environs  into  groves  and  gardens.  Louis 
X.,  after  his  father's  death,  b'eing  much  pressed  for  money, 
re-admitted  the  Jews  into  his  realm  on  the  payment  of  a 
considerable  price.  King  John  and  king  Charles  V.  drew 
large  sums  of  money  from  them,  either  by  taxation  or  in 
loans.  The  most  sacred  objects  of  the  church,  golden  rel- 
ics and  crucifixes  with  precious  stones,  were  pledged  to  the 
Jews,  and  the  Christians  could  not  redeem  them.  In  Eng- 
land, also,  the  most  unreasonable  and  exorbitant  exactions 
were  made  of  them,  and  when  in  1188  a  parliament  held  at 
Northampton  fixed  upon  a  tax  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a 
Crusade,  the  whole  Christian  population  was  assessed  at 
,£70,000,  and  the  Jews  alone  at  ^£60,000.  Now  whence 
did  all  this  wealth  come,  and  why  did  the  Jews  hoard  up 
that  which  they  were  allowed  so  little  to  enjoy  ?  They 
were  not  originally  a  commercial  nation,  but  shepherds  and 
husbandmen  ;  during  their  long  sojourn  in  Palestine  their 
condition  was  nearly  the  same  ;  their  change  of  occupation, 
when  they  became  men  of  commerce,  must  be  viewed  in 
connection  with  their  position  as  wanderers  over  the  earth. 
When  they  entered  upon  their  new  career,  trade  or  traffic 


91 

was  far  from  being  what  it  is  now.  The  Romans  had  early 
looked  upon  commerce  as  unbecoming  the  dignity  of  a  war- 
like and  conquering  nation ;  the  northern  tribes,  who  in 
their  migrations  during  the  fifth  and  succeeding  centuries 
had  taken  the  place  of  the  Romans,  manifested  still  greater 
contempt  for  all  matters  of  finance  and  traffic.  The  free 
men  possessed  the  land,  the  rest  of  the  population  were 
either  peasants,  serfs,  or  artisans.  Thus  all  trading,  bank- 
ing, and  financial  operations  fell  naturally  into  the  hands  of 
the  Jews,  who,  considering  themselves  as  strangers,  and 
looked  upon  as  enemies  by  the  Christians,  were  more  and 
more  excluded  from  the  possession  of  land,  and  the  pursuit 
of  agriculture.  In  the  situation  in  which  the  Jews  were  then 
placed,  commerce  itself  soon  took  a  more  ignoble  aspect, 
and  sank  into  petty  traffic,  while  their  financial  speculations 
not  infrequently  degenerated  into  usury.  Thus  persecu- 
tion drove  them  to  the  meanness  of  becoming  usurers,  and, 
in  turn,  their  undignified  occupation  increased  the  hatred  of 
their  oppressors,  who  looked  upon  them,  not  only  as  a 
degraded  race,  but  as  their  extorting  creditors.*  Crushed 
and  confined  by  the  Christian  nation  within  the  very  nar- 
rowest circle  in  which  existence  could  be  endured,  the  Jew 
was  forced  to  confine  his  inventive  genius  to  financial 
speculations  only.  We  must  not,  however,  imagine  that 
everything  to  which  the  name  of  usury  was  given  in  the 
middle  ages,  when  the  science  of  finance  was  unknown, 
really  deserves  that  name.  To  understand  this  accusation 
of  usury,  and  to  pass  sentence  upon  it  with  fairness,  we 

*  "  To  justify  the  Jews  from  the  accusation  of  having  established  an 
almost  universal  system  of  usury,  I  need  not  repeat — for  it  is  a  truth 
no  longer  contested— that  they  gave  in  to  this  vice  only  in  those 
countries  where  the  ill-treatment  of  Christians  compelled  them  to  resort 
to  such  expedients." — Beignot,  Les  Juifs  d'Occident.  The  Jews  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  during  the  centuries  of  their  sojourn  there,  were 
never  charged  with  being  usurers. 


92 

• 

must  further  take  into  consideration  that  the  prejudices  of 
the  time  did  not  allow  men  to  consider  that  property  in 
money,  as  well  as  in  land  or  any  other  possession,  ought  to 
bring  in  some  return  to  its  owner.  The  Jews,  it  is  true, 
contributed  largely  to  establish  this  misunderstanding,  by 
changing  a  fair  interest  into  a  detestable  system  of  usury; 
but  Christians,  on  the  other  hand,  were  no  less  to  blame; 
and  the  impartial  judge,  when  considering  the  financial 
operations  of  the  Jews,  and  fairly  analyzing  the  charges 
against  them,  will  at  any  rate  acknowledge  the  science  and 
talents,  as  well  as  the  cupidity  and  avarice,  which  they  dis- 
played. While  admitting  the  infamous  abuse  of  interest 
which  the  Jews  practised,  we  must  at  the  same  time  recog- 
nize the  services  rendered  by  them  both  to  the  theory  and 
practice  of  finance.  While  the  enormous  rate  of  interest 
exacted — the  scriptural  Neshech,  the  biting,  corroding 
interest — cannot  be  justified,  even  towards  a  stranger;  and 
while  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Jews  were  often  guilty  of  the 
basest  fraud,  and  scrupled  not  to  employ  any  means  what- 
soever in  order  to  amass  riches,  these  offences  may  be 
nevertheless  easily  accounted  for  as  unavoidable  evils. 
Excluded  by  the  feudal  system  from  every  honorable  and 
legitimate  career,  his  life  continually  threatened,  his  prop- 
erty and  means  of  subsistence  defenceless  against  injustice, 
is  it  to  be  wondered  that  the  Jew  employed  without  scruple 
the  only  weapons  which  were  left  him  ?  He  encountered 
violence  and  force  with  artifice  and  finesse  ;  he  opposed 
the  law  of  the  stronger  with  calculations  and  deep-laid 
schemes;  he  brought  to  bear  the  power  of  gold  against  that 
of  iron.  By  their  superiority  in  financial  affairs  the  Jews 
excited  popular  fury  to  the  very  utmost.  Doubly  detested 
as  the  murderers  of  Christ  and  the  vampires  of  Christian 
wealth,  they  were  a  special  object  of  severity  to  the  laws, 
both  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  of  hatred  to  the  nobles,  and  of 
violence  to  the  populace.  The  sovereigns  who  gave  them 


93 

protection  usually  made  use  of  them  as  of  a  sponge,  which 
they  allowed  to  fill  with  the  money  of  their  subjects,  and 
then  squeeze  its  contents  into  the  royal  treasury.  Some- 
times, however,  their  protection  availed  nothing,  and  they 
were  obliged  to  leave  them  to  the  fury  of  their  enemies, 
when  a  single  sermon  from  a  fanatic  or  malevolent  monk, 
or  an  absurd  report  of  a  murder  committed  on  a  Christian 
child  to  celebrate  their  passover  with  his  blood,  or  even  a 
mere  outbreak  of  blind  fanaticism  among  the  populace,  was 
sufficient  to  bring  death  and  desolation  upon  the  whole 
Jewish  quarter.  What  indeed  did  this  nominal  thing  of 
royal  protection  amount  to,  when  they  were  debarred  by 
law  from  holding  landed  property,  from  exercising  any  civil 
or  military  office,  or  even  from  the  right  of  citizenship,  while 
the  most  humiliating  restrictions  were  imposed  upon  them  ? 
They  were  shut  up  within  the  narrow  bounds  of  a  peculiar 
quarter,  often  locked  up  at  night  like  cattle  in  a  yard. 
Conspicuous  marks  of  degradation  were  imposed  upon  them, 
such  as  yellow  patches  on  their  clothes,  peaked  hats,  and 
the  like.  In  Bohemia  there  was  an  edict  issued  prescribing 
a  peculiar  manner  of  hanging  Jews,  that  a  distinction  might 
be  made  b'etween  their  body  and  that  of  a  Christian  criminal 
who  might  share  the  same  fate. 

Was  it  possible  that  such  a  classification  and  such  treat- 
ment should  fail  to  produce  an  effect  upon  the  moral  char- 
acter of  the  Jews,  and  tend  to  enervate  and  harden  the 
subject  of  such  cruel  oppression  ?  Can  we  be  surprised 
that  he  whose  toleration  in  society  depended  only  on  the 
amount  of  money  he  possessed,  should  cling  to  that  posses- 
sion with  the  greatest  tenacity,  and,  next  to  his  religion, 
centre  all  his  activity,  all  his  delight,  in  the  hoarding  of 
gold?  Can  we  be  surprised  that  his  outward  appearance 
should  have  suffered,  as  well  as  his  inward  character;  that 
is,  his  countenance  should  come  to  wear  the  expression  of 
that  timidity,  and  trembling  of  heart,  which  belongs  to  the 


94 

man  of  distrust,  who  feels  no  security  for  his  property,  his 
life,  or  for  those  that  are  to  him  dearer  than  life  ?  To 
retain  their  equanimity,  their  integrity,  and  an  evenness  of 
character  under  such  circumstances  would  have  been 
superhuman  indeed. 

Having  thus  endeavored  to  show  in  its  proper  light  the 
position  of  the  Jews  in  those  ages,  we  resume  the  thread  of 
events  as  they  occurred  in  England.  The  rather  favorable 
condition  in  which  they  appear  in  the  beginning  of  this 
article  was  interrupted  by  fearful  outrages  after  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.  When  the  coronation  of  Richard  I.  was  to 
take  place,  the  whole  population  prepared  to  join  in  the 
festivity;  but  the  Jews,  being  suspected  of  sorcery,  were 
strictly  forbidden  to  make  their  appearance  in  public.  A 
few  strangers,  however,  ventured  to  enter  the  church  to 
witness  the  grand  ceremony.  They  were  detected,  and 
dragged  out  of  the  church  almost  dead.  This  roused  the 
people  to  a  tumult,  and  a  general  plunder  of  the  Jews' 
houses  ensued.  The  example  of  London  was  followed  in 
several  other  towns,  where  the  Jews  were  robbed  and 
murdered.  At  York  many  of  the  unfortunate  took  refuge 
in  the  castle,  where  the  governor  admitted  them,  but  when 
the  latter  was  absent,  the  Jews,  suspecting  that  they  were 
betrayed,  closed  the  gates  against  him,  and  boldy  manned 
the  citadel.  The  indignant  governor  gathered  an  armed 
force  and  gave  the  signal  for  attack.  The  populace,  urged 
on  by  the  clergy,  shouted:  "  Destroy  the  enemies  of  Christ! 
destroy  the  enemies  of  Christ!  "  The  besieged  resisted  man- 
fully during  several  days,  but  finding  their  fate  unavoidable, 
their  minister  addressed  them  thus:  "  Men  of  Israel !  the 
God  o'f  our  fathers  calls  upon  us  to  die  for  our  law.  Death 
is  inevitable,  my  advice  is  that  we  voluntarily  render  up  our 
souls  to  our  Creator,  and  fall  by  our  own  hands."  The 
greater  part  of  them  consented,  burned  or  buried  their  most 
valuable  effects,  set  fire  to  the  castle  in  many  places,  cut 


95 

the  throats  of  their  wives  and  children,  and  then  their  own. 
The  minister  and  his  friend  Joachim  alone  were  left.  The 
latter  fell  by  the  hand  of  the  rabbi,  who  then  stabbed  him- 
self to  the  heart.  The  next  morning,  when  the  enemy  ap- 
proached for  a  new  assault,  they  found  the  castle  in  flames, 
while  the  few  wretches  who  remained  were  running  to  and 
fro,  crying  for  mercy,  and  offering  to  submit  to  baptism. 
The  terms  were  accepted;  but  when  the  gates  were  opened, 
the  multitude  poured  in  and  put  every  living  being  to  the 
sword.  No  less  than  500  families  perished. 

John  of  England,  known  for  his  cruelty,  rapacity,  and 
cowardice,  being  again  and  again  in  want  of  money,  threw 
all  prominent  Jews  into  prison,  and  subjected  them  to  most 
cruel  torments,  in  order  to  make  them  pay.  A  Jew  of 
Bristol,  being  suspected  of  having  some  hidden  treasures, 
was  required  to  pay  ten  thousand  marks.*  He  pretended 
to  have  no  money,  and  the  king  ordered  that  he  should  have 
one  of  his  teeth  drawn  every  day  until  he  should  tell  where 
his  money  was.  He  resisted  for  seven  days  and  lost  seven 
of  his  teeth,  then  saved  the  rest  by  paying  the  sum  demanded. 
Henry  III.,  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  treated  the  Jews 
with  much  consideration,  but  the  people,  and  especially  the 
clergy,  remained  their  inveterate  enemies.  The  wearing  of 
two  strips  of  white  cloth,  as  a  mark  of  ignoble  distinction, 
was  again  enforced.  A  crime  was  now  laid  to  their  charge — 
much  more  probable  than  the  tales  of  their  crucifying 
children — their  tampering  with  and  clipping  the  coin  of  the 
realm.  In  1230,  one-third  of  all  their  movable  property 
was  demanded  and  taken  from  them.  A  few  years  later, 
several  heavy  taxes  were  again  laid  upon  them,  and  so 
inexhaustible  seemed  their  resources,  that  it  was  commonly 
believed  the  Jews  obtained  their  wealth  by  magical  or 

supernatural  means.     The  king,  being  ever  in  want  of  money, 

A 

*  A  mark  equal  to  13^.  $d. 


96 

sold  the  Jews  to  his  brother,  Richard  of  Cornwall,  for 
5,000  marks,  giving  him  full  power  over  their  property  and 
persons.  When  Richard  was  elected  king  of  the  Romans, 
Henry  again  sold  them  to  Prince  Edward,  who  re-sold  them 
to  the  merchants  of  Dauphiny.  But  Henry,  devoid  of  even 
common  honesty,  broke  his  bargain  and  took  the  Jews  again 
under  his  own  power,  to  satisfy  his  insatiable  thirst  for 
money,  and  subject  them  once  more  to  his  barbarous  extor- 
tions. After  the  death  of  Henry  III.,  they  were  treated 
with  equal  injustice  by  Edward  I.  He  issued  an  edict, 
however,  which  had  a  tendency  to  wean  the  Jews  from  their 
usurious  practices  All  usury  was  forbidden,  but  the  Jews 
were  allowed  to  transact  all  other  kinds  of  business,  and  to 
cultivate  farms,  and  were  therein  promised  the  royal  protec- 
tion. This,  however,  did  not  suit  the  taste  or  convenience 
of  the  Jews.  Many  were  now  found  guilty  of  having  clipped 
the  coin,  and  in  London  alone  two  hundred  and  eighty  of 
them  were  executed  in  one  year  for  this  offence.  At  last 
an  edict  was  issued  (1290)  for  the  total  expulsion  of  the 
Jews  from  the  realm.  All  their  property  was  seized  for  the 
benefit  of  the  king,  and  about  16,000  of  them  were  merci- 
lessly driven  from  their  homes  and  their  country,  to  which 
they  were  never  allowed  to  return,  nor  their  descendants, 
until  three  centuries  afterwards. 

THE  INQUISITION. 

It  is  with  reluctance  that  we  begin  the  story  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion. In  casting  a  cursory  glance  over  the  whole  of  this 
horrible  chapter;  the  injustice,  the  inhumanity,  the  systematic 
infliction  of  so  much  unmerited  suffering,  the  agony  of  so 
many  inoffensive  creatures  roasting  and  writhing  over  the 
flames  of  the  auto-da-fe,  or  dragging  out  their  existence  in 
loathsome  dungeons;  all  rise  before  the  imagination,  and  the 
mind  is  shocked  to  think  thtit  so  much  depravity  can  dwell 
in  the  human  heart.  We  have  in  the  preceding  paragraphs 


97 

described  much  cruelty  and  suffering;  but  in  those  cases 
the  perpetrators  were  mostly  the  uncultivated,  unprincipled 
populace,  hungry  wolves  ready  to  seize  their  prey  wherever 
it  could  be  found ;  while  the   sufferers  were  comparative 
strangers  to  their  foes,  looked  upon  as  intruding  on  the  rights 
of  old  inhabitants  ;  sometimes  wanderers  driven  from  place 
to  place,  who  did  not  feel  themselves  at  home  and  knew 
that  they  were  living  on  the  sufferance  of  their  fellow-men. 
Aware  also  of  the  mutual  antipathy  that  ever  existed  be- 
tween them  and  their  neighors,  they  expected  no  kindness 
at  their  hands,  and  when  the  blow  came,  they  were  more  or 
less  prepared  for  it.     But  how  widely  different  from  this 
was  the  condition  of  the  Jews  in  Spain  when  the  thunder- 
bolt of  the  expulsion  came  upon  them.     The  Jews  in  Spain 
had  been  settled  there  for  many  centuries  ;  they  constituted 
part  of  the  aristocracy  of  the  land  :  they  were  the  nobles, 
the  statesmen,  the  councillors  of  kings,  the  companions  of 
princes,  the  pre-eminent  scholars  ;  they  had  been  the  great 
benefactors  of  the  country,  had  elevated  it  by  their  talents, 
and   enriched    it  by  their  industry  ;    while  their    enemies 
were  not   of   the  vulgar  multitude,  but   the   highest  digni- 
taries   of    the   church,   they    whose   avowed   profession    it 
was  to  enlighten  the  people ;  to  teach  benevolence,  charity, 
forgiveness,  and  so  many  virtues  which  the  Church  vainly 
claims  as  her  own,  and  their  wickedness  was  performed  under 
the   cloak  of   that  very  religion    they  pretended  to  teach. 
Now,  before  entering  upon  the  facts  of  the  inquisition,  that 
is,  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  let  us  look  for  a  moment  into 
the  causes  of  it.    Inquisition,  as  the  word  inplies,  is  the  title 
of  a  court  established  to  inquire  into  offences   against  the 
established  religion.     The  idea  originated  with  the  tyran- 
nical pope  Innocent  III.,  who  in  the  twelfth  century  com- 
missioned St.   Dominic  to  persecute  the  Albigenses,  a  sect 
in  the   south   of    France,  who    entertained  views   different 
5 


from  the  Roman  church.  After  these  people  had  been 
entirely  conquered,  a  regular  and  permanent  inquisitorial 
tribunal  was  established  in  France  in  the  thirteenth  century  ; 
it  was  subsequently  introduced  into  Italy,  Germany,  and 
various  other  parts  of  Europe,  though  not  without  meeting 
with  strong  opposition  even  on  the  part  of  the  bishops  and 
clergy.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Inquisition,  when 
first  established  and  while  it  remained  under  the  immediate 
control  of  the  popes,  had  none  of  those  horrible  features, 
did  not  aim  at  those  unheard-of  barbarities  which  it  assumed 
afterwards.  The  first  instructions  were  simply  to  labor  for 
the  conversion  of  heretics ;  to  acquire  information  of  their 
numbers  and  their  rank  ;  to  examine  and  report  whether 
priests  and  magistrates  were  zealous  in  the  performance  of 
their  duties  :  but  when  the  power  of  execution  was  delivered 
into  the  hands  of  the  detestable  orders  of  Dominicans  and 
Franciscans,  the  ambitions  and  the  barbarity  of  these  mon- 
sters knew  no  bounds,  and  the  Inquisition  became  a  cause 
of  terror  even  to  the  papacy  which  authorized  and  upheld 
it.  In  Spain  it  was  not  introduced  until  the  latter  part  of 
the  fifteenth  century  ;  and  then  the  Cortez,  the  nobility, 
the  great  cardinal  de  Mendoza,  and  various  eminent  digni- 
taries were  opposed  to  it ;  but  the  Dominicans,  at  whose 
head  was  Thomas  de  Torquemada,the  first  inquisitor  general, 
were  determined  to  have  it,  and  they  were  supported  by  the 
lowest  orders  of  the  populace.  You  will  remember  that 
Spain  was  then  divided  into  different  monarchies.  Isabella, 
daughter  of  John  III.,  inherited  the  throne  of  Castile,  and 
espoused  her  cousin  Ferdinand,  king  of  Arragon,  and  by 
this  union  was  founded  the  united  kingdom  of  Spain,  though 
the  consorts  reigned  independently  of  each  other.  Isabella 
was  the  stronger-minded  of  the  two.  Ferdinand  was  subtle 
and  perfidious  in  his  dealings,  insidious  in  his  policy,  crafty 
in  his  schemes;  while  the  queen  was  amiable  and  frank, her 


temper  was  firm,  her  intentions  upright.  Neither  of  them, 
especially  not  Isabella,  entertained  any  hatred  for  the  Jewish 
race;  she  befriended  them  and  felt  attached  to  them.  She 
herself  had  Jewish  blood  in  her  veins,  by  her  descent  in  the 
female  line  from  John  I.  of  Portugal,  whose  mother  had 
been  a  Jewess.  Her  court,  as  well  as  that  of  the  kings  who 
had  preceded  herself  and  consort,  had  always  been  sur- 
rounded by  Jews,  in  the  capacity  of  physicians,  treasurers, 
councillors,  and  ministers  of  state;  individuals  of  that  nation 
had  many  times  proved  their  fidelity  to  Queen  Isabella  and 
her  husband.  Don  Abraham  Senior,  in  a  moment  when 
their  succession  seemed  doubtful,  had  exerted  himself  on 
•their  behalf  with  so  much  energy  that,  when  a  great  diminu- 
tion of  favors  and  pensions  was  decreed,  he  was  among  the 
few  to  whom  a  continuation  of  his  pension  was  considered 
due;  and  Don  Isaac  Abarbanel  long  enjoyed  the  confidence 
of  the  "  Catholic  sovereigns,"  as  they  were  pre-eminently 
called.  But  Queen  Isabella  was  also  a  sincere  devotee,  and 
this  was  her  weakest  side.  To  vanquish  her  strongest 
resolutions,  to  persuade  her  to  the  adoption  of  any  measure 
whatever,  it  sufficed  to  alarm  her  about  her  salvation. 
Cardinal  Ximenes,  at  the  same  time  prime  minister,  was 
the  queen's  confessor,  and  no  doubt  used  his  influence  to 
poison  her  mind.  Torquemada  had  filled  that  office  to  the 
infanta  when  she  was  quite  young,  and  on  the  occasion  of 
her  receiving  the  sacrament  for  the  first  time,  a  moment 
when  the  mind  and  soul  of  the  young  candidate  is  entirely 
given  to  God  and  to  religion,  the  crafty  monk  exacted  from 
her  the  promise  that,  if  ever  she  should  come  to  the  throne, 
she  would  maintain  the  Catholic  faith  with  all  her  power, 
and  extirpate  heresy  to  the  very  root;  and  it  is  no  wonder 
that,  under  these  circumstances,  and  under  the  power  of 
these  two  influential  men,  even  the  strong-minded  Queen 
Isabella  was  made  to  yield.  Consequently,  when  in  1478 


IOO 


Pope  Sixtus  IV.  issued  a  bull  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition  in  Castile,  the  institution  was  accepted  by  the 
king  and  queen.  The  powers  granted  to  this  new  inquisition 
were  far  more  extensive  than  any  of  which  similar  tribunals 
in  other  countries  were  possessed,  and  the  institution  was 
such  as  to  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion, from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  the  king  himself  not 
being  exempt  from  its  prowling  searches.  The  fury  of  the 
inquisition  was  directed  at  first  against  heretics  and  infidels 
among  its  own  ranks,  and  its  suspicions  rested  especially 
upon  those  Jews  who  from  time  to  time  had  been  converted, 
and  upon  the  descendants  of  converts  whose  number  was 
quite  extensive.  The  proceedings  of  this  tribunal  were  the 
most  arbitrary,  surpassing  all  bounds  of  justice  and  equity. 
It  had  a  number  of  spies  spread  over  all  cities,  towns,  and 
villages  in  search  of  victims.  No  one  connected  \\ith  the 
institution  was  amenable  to  the  civil  law  for  any  of  his  acts. 
Any  one  suspected  or  reported  could  be  seized  without  any 
warning,  without  being  informed  who  accused  him,  without 
being  told  of  what  he  was  thought  guilty.  Apprehended  in 
the  midst  of  his  family,  his  friends,  and  domestics,  nobody 
dared  to  move  in  his  defense.  The  moment  he  passed  the 
threshold  of  the  Inquisition,  he  was  dead  to  the  world; 
terror  chained  the  tongue  even  of  his  nearest  relations.  A 
man  was  obliged  to  inform  against  his  father,  his  brother, 
his  wife,  his  children,  if  a  suspicious  word  or  phrase  should 
escape  their  mouth,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  and  of 
being  treated  as  an  abettor  of  heretics.  The  property  of  an 
accused  person  was  immediately  seized,  and  if  found  guilty 
it  was  confiscated.  Penitent  offenders  were  subjected  to 
imprisonment,  scourging,  confiscation,  and  infamy;  those 
who  were  condemned  were  burned  at  the  auto-da-fe.  Few 
escaped  the  voracity  of  the  blood-hounds  of  the  "  Holy 
Office;  "  even  the  bodies  of  those  who  died  under  sentence 


IOI 


of  condemnation  were,  hyena-like,  taken  from  their  graves, 
insulted,  and  burned;  and  if  perchance  some  escaped  their 
clutches,  they  were  burnt  in  effigy.  In  one  year  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty  were  burnt  in  Seville  alone,  seventy-nine 
were  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  17,000  suffered 
lighter  punishment. 

Thus  this  horrible  scourge  of  the  nation  went  on  from 
year  to  year,  multiplying  its  victims,  and  increasing  its 
terrors,  and  yet  twelve  years  intervened  between  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Inquisition  against  concealed  Jews  and  the 
edict  of  banishment  for  those  who  were  so  openly.  During 
the  interval,  the  latter  continued  on  good  terms  with  the 
government,  and  were  still  admitted  to  high  offices  at  court, 
and  too  confident  perhaps  of  their  high- standing,  acted 
incautiously  and  gave  cause  for  complaint  and  even  for 
alarm  in  the  ranks  of  their  enemies.  For  example,  in  the 
year  1480,  when  the  Cardinal  de  Mendoza  had  published  a 
catechism  for  the  use  of  baptized  Jews,  there  appeared  from 
the  pen  of  a  Jewish  author  a  virulent  attack  upon  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  as  well  as  upon  the  Catholic 
sovereigns.  The  Jews  were  also  accused  of  endeavoring  to 
make  proselytes,  not  only  among  the  new  Christians,  but 
among  the  old,  whose  descent  could  be  traced  to  Jewish 
parents,  and  in  some  cases  they  seem  to  have  succeeded. 
So  formidable  were  they  by  their  number,  their  riches,  their 
influence,  and  their  relationship  with  the  converses  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  and  the  unanimous  testimony  of  both 
Jewish  and  Christian  writers  establishes  the  fact,  that  there 
is  scarcely  a  family  of  note  in  Spain  or  Portugal  which  is 
not  descended,  either  in  the  male  or  female  line,  from  Jews 
who  had  embraced  Christianity.  At  last  the  fatal  edict, 
which  had  long  been  threatened,  was  proclaimed  on  the  3ist 
of  March,  1492,  commanding  all  unbaptized  Jews  to  vacate 
the  Spanish  dominions  within  four  months.  The  effect  of 


102 

this  cruel  mandate  upon  the  Jewish  communities  baffles 
description.  They  made  a  strenuous  effort  to  avert  the 
blow.  Don  Isaac  Abarbanel,  a  man  of  great  learning  and 
unblemished  reputation,  and  highly  respected  at  court,  threw 
himself  at  the  feet  of  the  king  and  queen,  begging  them  to 
revoke  the  fearful  edict.  He  knew  that  Ferdinand  was 
ambitious,  and  that  the  royal  treasury  was  nearly  exhausted 
by  the  late  wars  against  the  Moors.  In  the  name  of  his 
people  he  offered  the  king  an  immense  sum  if  he  would 
withdraw  the  decree;  he  counted  also  upon  the  tender- 
heartedness of  the  queen,  and  might  have  gained  his  point, 
but  the  monster  Torquemada  placed  himself  before  their 
majesties,  crucifix  in  hand,  exclaiming:  "Behold  him  whom 
Judas  Iscariot  sold  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  sell  ye  him 
now  for  a  higher  price  and  render  an  account  of  your  bar- 
gain before  God."  The  sovereigns  trembled  before  the 
unrelenting  demon,  and  the  Jews  had  no  alternative  but 
baptism  or  exile.  They  were  allowed  to  dispose  of  their 
property,  but  not  to  carry  away  gold,  silver,  or  jewels  beyond 
a  certain  amount;  for  their  sales  they  were  to  accept  bills 
of  exchange.  In  the  great  need  of  the  moment,  and  the 
short  time  allowed  them,  their  enemies  naturally  took  every 
advantage  of  the  situation.  "A  house  was  sold  for  an  ass, 
and  a  vineyard  for  a  piece  of  linen."  It  is  estimated  that 
not  less  than  300,000  Jews  were  thus  most  cruelly  driven 
from  their  own  native  country.  They  left  the  homes  of 
their  youth,  the  scenes  of  their  early  ancestors,  the  more 
recent  tombs  of  their  own  friends  and  relatives.  They  left 
the  synagogues  in  which  they  had  so  long  worshipped  their 
God;  the  schools  where  those  wise  men  had  taught  who 
had  thrown  a  lustre  which  shone,  even  through  the  darkness 
of  the  age,  upon  the  Hebrew  name, 


NEW  SETTLEMENTS  OF  THE  SPANISH  EXILES. 

Let  us  follow  the  exiled  Jews  in  their  wanderings  over 
the  different  parts  of  the  world  where  they  were  now  obliged 
to  seek  a  refuge.  Portugal  had  no  inquisition  yet,  and  being 
the  nearest  by,  many  Jews  directed  their  steps  to  that  country. 
They  were  admitted  by  Joam  II.  on  the  payment  of  eight 
golden  crowns  per  head,  but  were  to  remain  only  eight  months. 
After  that  time  those  who  were  possessed  of  means  went 
towards  Africa,  but  the  poor,  or  those  who  were  afraid  to 
travel  further  on,  were  made  slaves,  and  children  under  four- 
teen years  of  age  were  torn  from  their  parents'  arms  and 
forcibly  baptized.  A  number  of  these  were  sent  to  colonize 
the  island  of  St.  Thomas.  Don  Emanuel,  who  succeeded 
John  II.,  was  at  first  very  lenient  towards  the  Jews,  and  made 
the  slaves  free  ;  but  when  he  sought  in  marriage  the  infanta 
Isabella,  daughter  of  the  catholic  sovereign  of  Spain,  one  of 
the  conditions  of  the  alliance  was  that  he  should  banish  the 
Jews  from  his  country,  to  which  Manuel  agreed.  Thus, 
against  the  advice  of  the  king's  councillors,  the  choice  was 
offered  to  the  whole  body  of  Jews  in  Portugal,  either  to 
receive  baptism  or  leave  the  country  forever.  This  decree, 
you  will  observe,  had  reference,  not  only  to  emigrants  from 
Spain,  but  to  the  whole  community  which  had  been  established 
there  for  centuries.  The  consequences  were  the  same  as  in 
Spain — a  general  exodus.  The  Jews  were  divided  in  opinion 
as  to  what  course  to  take ;  some  abandoned  forever  the  soil 
of  Portugal,  others,  not  fewer  in  number,  embraced  or  feigned 
to  embrace  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.'  Thus  Spain  and 
Portugal  had  been  cleared  of  all  Jews  avowing  their  religion, 
but  there  was  a  multitude  of  concealed  Jews  who  bore  the 
name  of  New  Christians,  Converses,  or  Marranos.  Being 
outwardly  attached  to  a  religion  which  they  detested  in  their 


IO4 

hearts,  because  they  had  learned  how  bitter  and  cruel  is  that 
love  and  charity  which  that  religion  teaches,  the  nominal 
Christians  embraced  every  opportunity  secretly  to  observe 
the  ceremonies  of  their  own  faith,  and  inculcated  its  principles 
in  the  minds  of  their  children  with  the  more  vigor.  Some 
ten  years  after  the  expulsion,  a  number  of  them  were  detected 
celebrating  the  Passover,  which  aroused  the  popular  fury 
against  them.  That  same  year  there  had  been  great  drought 
and  scarcity  in  the  land,  and  as  a  means  of  consolation  a  de- 
ceiving monk  exhibited  to  the  superstitious  populace  a  cruci- 
fix on  which  a  hidden  light  had  been  made  to  reflect  which 
the  impostor  declared  as  a  manifestation  of  the  Deity.  One 
of  the  New  Christians  in  the  audience  observed  incautiously 
that  "  if  God  would  manifest  himself  by  water  instead  of 
fire  it  would  be  more  acceptable."  The  multitude  rushed 
upon  him  and  murdered  him  right  out,  and  his  brother,  who 
stood  by  lamenting  his  death,  instantly  shared  his  fate.  The 
houses  of  the  converts  were  assailed  and  ransacked,  and  a 
general  massacre  ensued. 

It  did  not  fare  better  with  the  fugitives  who  escaped  to 
Morocco.  They  were  not  even  permitted  to  enter  the  town, 
for  fear  that  they  might  bring  famine  and  pestilence  to  the 
citizens.  They  were  left  on  the  sea-shore  without  food  or 
drink,  and  obliged  to  live  on  a  few  roots  or  a  little  grass  they 
could  find  there.  And  so  firm  were  they  in  their  religious 
principles  that  on  the  Sabbath  they  would  not  even  pluck 
the  grass,  but  they  laid  on  their  knees  to  eat  it  off  like  cattle. 
Some  sold  their  children  for  bread,  others  killed  them  with 
their  own  hands  rather  than  see  them  pine  away.  Some  were 
landed  by  a  barbarous  captain,  and  left  naked  and  desolate 
on  the  African  shore,  where  the  wild  beasts  came  to  devour 
them,  and  they  could  save  themselves  only  by  plunging  into 
the  sea  where  they  remained  till  the  animals  retired,  For 


five  days  they  were  left  in  this  condition,  until  the  captain  of 
another  vessel  sent  his  boat  to  their  relief.* 

Hardly  were  those  who  went  to  Italy  more  fortunate. 
When  they  reached  the  coast  of  Genoa  they  were  perishing 
with  hunger.  The  clergy  came  to  them  with  the  crucifix  in 
one  hand,  and  provisions  in  the  other.  The  unfortunates  had 
to  choose  between  baptism  or  starvation  ;  they  yielded  to  the 
cravings  of  nature  and  were  baptized.  In  RonTe  they  were 
received  unfriendly  even  by  their  own  brethren,  who  were 
afraid  that  the  increase  of  their  number  would  bring  evil  on 
the  community.  Even  the  wicked  monster,  Pope  Alexander, 
was  moved  with  indignation,  and  to  relieve  himself  of  the 
sight  of  so  much  distress,  ordered  all  Jews  to  leave  the  coun- 
try ;  and  they  were  allowed  to  stay  only  on  the  payment  of 
a  large  sum  of  money. 

The  Turkish  empire,  particularly  its  European  dominions, 
was  the  great  final  retreat  of  those  who  fled  from  Spain  and 
Portugal.  As  the  Mohammedans  have  always  been  more 
friendly  to  the  Jews,  generally  treated  them  with  consider- 
ation, often  with  distinction,  so  they  were  in  these  hours  of 
tribulation  well  received  by  their  half-brothers.  They  settled 
down  in  Constantinople,  Salonica,  and  other  commercial 
towns  of  the  Levant,  where  they  breathed  again  the  air  of 
freedom;  re-established  their  rabbinical  schools  ;  and  soon 
availed  themselves  of  the  new  invention  of  printing  for  the 
publication  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  the  literary  works 
of  their  ancestors.  There  also  they  established  extensive 
connections  with  their  brethren  in  Italy  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  world. 

*An  author  of  our  days  cleverly  observes  the  striking  fact,  that,  "  ere 
a  century  had  passed,  the  flower  of  the  youthful  nobility  of  Portugal,  with 
king  Sebastian  at  their  head,  were  slain  or  made  prisoners  on  the  same 
coast  of  Africa  to  which  the  Jewish  exiles  had  been  so  barbarously  driven, 
and  happy,  by  comparison,  was  the  lot  of  those  Christian  captives  who 
fell  into  the  hands  of  African  Israelites,  from  whom  alone  they  received 
any  compassion  and  assistance  in  their  misfortunes." 


THIRD  PERIOD, 


FROM  THE  TIME  OF  THE  SPANISH  INQUISI- 
TION TO  THE  PRESENT  DAY. 

THE  REFORMATION. 

With  the  dawning  of  the  Reformation  (1520)  began  a  new 
era  which  brought  about  great  changes  in  the  political  and 
ecclesiastical  history  of  the  world,  and  at  the  same  time 
affected  the  condition  of  the  Jews  very  materially.  Though 
not  immediately  connected  with  our  history,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  give  a  concise  account  of  that  important  turning-  point, 
its  causes,  and  the  circumstances  which  attended  it,  that  our 
young  readers  may  be  able  the  better  to  understand  the  re- 
sults thereby  produced,  and  how  they  were  produced. 

From  several  of  the  foregoing  articles  it  appears  how  strong 
a  hold  the  Catholic  religion — till  now  the  almost  exclusive 
religion  of  Christians — had  on  the  public  mind.  The  pope, 
as  head  of  the  church,  claimed — and  still  claims — to  be  the 
representative  of  God  upon  earth,  and  the  claim  was  tamely 
submitted  to.  The  pontiff  exercised  absolute  authority,  not 
only  in  religious  matters,  but  in  secular  affairs  as  well.  Kings 
and  emperors  were  made  and  unmade  by  him,  and  if  any 
ruler  dared  to  oppose  his  authority,  the  pope  had  only  to  tell 
the  people  that  they  owed  no  allegiance  to  their  king,  who 
then  and  thereby  lost  all  control  over  his  subjects.  The  pope 
was  supposed  to  hold  the  keys  of  heaven,  and  to  have  the 
power  of  granting  pardon  to  sinners  who  paid  for  the  immu- 
nity, and  even  to  grant  the  privilege  of  committing  a  sin  or  a 
series  of  sins  if  paid  for  in  advance.  In  this  way  an  immense 
business  was  carried  on,  and  vast  amounts  flowed  into  the 


107 

treasury  of  the  church.  As  the  pope  could  not  attend  to  all 
this  traffic  himself,  numerous  delegates  were  authorized  by 
his  holiness  to  sell  indulgences,  as  it  is  called.  It  can  be 
well  imagined  that  these  salesmen  were  not  always  strictly 
honest  and  pious  men.  Many  indeed  there  were  of  such 
dissolute  morals,  so  profligate  and  corrupt,  as  to  bring  dis- 
grace on  the  profession.  This  practice  had  existed  for  ages, 
still  no  one  dared  to  oppose  the  holy  See.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  Pope  Leo  X.,  being  in  want  of  more 
money,  put  up  for  sale  a  number  of  indulgences  which  were 
disposed  of  in  so  shameful  a  manner  as  to  attract  particular 
attention  and  indignation.  It  was  then  that  Martin  Luther, 
formerly  an  Augustinian  monk,  now  professor  of  divinity  at 
Wittenberg,  boldly  and  publicly  began  to  expose  the  corrup- 
tions and  abuses  of  the  church.  He,  of  course,  met  with  strong 
opposition,  was  summoned,  threatened,  excommunicated  ; 
but  he  soon  gained  adherents,  whose  number  grew  stronger 
from  day  to  day  ;  the  Catholic  church  was  shaken  to  its  very 
foundation,  and  the  Protestant  religion  had  taken  root. 
About  the  same  time,  though  quite  independent  of  Luther's 
labors,  an  attack  on  the  Roman  church  was  made  in  Switzer- 
land, and  occasioned  likewise  by  an  excess  of  this  unwarrant- 
able religious  traffic.  Shortly  afterwards,  John  Calvin,  an- 
other eminent  reformer  from  popery,  began  to  teach  different 
doctrine  in  France,  and  while  the  Christians  were  thus 
quarrelling  among  themselves,  the  Jews  were  allowed  a  little 
repose.  Not  that  the  changes  which  were  going  on  had  an 
immediate  effect  on  their  condition,  only  the  spirit  of  the  age 
began  to  incline  a  little  towards  toleration  ;  something  of 
that  deep  darkness  and  blind  fanaticism  of  which  the  Roman 
church  was  possessed  began  to  be  removed.  Luther,  though 
not  free  from  the  common  prejudice  against  the  Jews,  often 
spoke  kindly  of  them,  was  opposed  to  violence  against  them, 
and  reprobated  all  means  of  converting  them  except  those 


io8 

of  gentleness.  In  short,  the  whole  procedure  gave  a  differ- 
ent turn  to  a  great  portion  of  the  public  mind,  which  was 
beneficial  to  the  Jews.  Another  circumstance  which  con- 
tributed to  a  better  recognition  of  the  Jews,  their  religion, 
and  their  literature  was,  that  mighty  instrument  of  civiliza- 
tion— the  printing  press,  had  begun  to  do  its  work,  and  the 
Jews  had  not  been  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  its  advan- 
tages. The  Scriptures,  which  hitherto  could  be  read  only 
with  such  commentaries  and  constructions  as  popery 
chose  to  put  on  them,  appeared  in  a  new  light.  The 
unintelligible  Talmud,  which  was  believed  to  be  full  of 
blasphemies  against  Christ,  and  to  contain  mysterious  and 
dangerous  secrets  applied  by  the  Jews  to  illegitimate  pur- 
poses, and  to  the  injury  of  Christians,  was  found  to  contain 
much  wisdom  and  much  folly,  but  nothing  hurtful ;  the 
immense  literary  labors  of  the  Jewish  doctors  of  the  middle 
ages  were  given  to  the  world,  and  made  it  evident  that  these 
people  were  not  all  money-lenders  and  small  dealers. 
Christian  scholars  began  to  seek  a  knowledge  of  Hebrew 
at  the  hands  of  Jewish  masters  ;  eminent  men,  such  as  the 
Buxtorfs,  applied  themselves  to  the  study  of  rabbinical 
literature  and  recognized  the  services  these  writings  had 
rendered  and  might  still  render  to  science,  as  well  as  to  the 
proper  interpretation  of  Scripture.  The  celebrated  prince 
John  Pico  de  Mirandola,  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  so  deeply  devoted  to,  and  so  much  prepos- 
sessed in  favor  of  these  works,  that  he  looked  upon  them  as 
the  source  of  all  wisdom,  and  labored  to  prove  by  their 
means  the  truths  of  the  Gospel. 

Already  a  few  years  previous  to  the  reformation,  the 
merits  and  demerits  of  rabbinical  writings  had  been  the 
cause  of  very  serious  debates  among  Christian  theologians. 
John  Pfefferkorn,  an  apostate  Jew  of  Cologne,  had  obtained 
from  the  emperor  Maximilian  a  decree  authorizing  the 


IOQ 

destruction  of  all  Hebrew  books  except  the  Bible.  An 
edict  to  that  effect  was  issued  in  1510,  but  through  the 
intervention  of  Professor  Reuchlin,  the  execution  of  it  was 
suspended  until  the  opinion  of  the  Archbishop  of  Spire 
should  be  obtained.  In  the  mean  time,  Reuchlin  employed 
his  pen  in  defense  of  Jewish  literature,  making  a  distinction 
between  those  of  general  utility  and  those  that  might  be 
injurious  to  Christianity.  Eminent  scholars  of  different 
parts  of  the  world  took  part  in  the  dispute,  and  the  contest 
became  very  animated,  lasting  not  less  than  ten  years. 
Reuchlin,  not  in  the  least  daunted  by  the  strong  opposition 
he  met  with,  brought  the  matter  before  the  judgment  seat 
of  Pope  Leo,  and  now  his  adversaries  thought  themselves 
sure  of  victory.  But  the  pontiff  was  a  friend  and  protector 
of  science  and  literature,  and  appointed  a  committee  of 
investigation.  The  emperor  Maximilian,  having  come  to  a 
better  conviction  of  the  truth,  threw  the  weight  of  his  in- 
fluence in  favor  of  Reuchlin,  and  a  decision  for  the  preser- 
vation of  the  Hebrew  books  was  soon  rendered. 

We  must  further  bear  in  mind  that  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World,  at  this  same  period,  opened  for  the  dispersed  of 
Israel  a  new  sphere  of  which  they  failed  not  to  avail  them- 
selves very  shortly  after  the  discovery,  and  that  within  the 
same  century  Holland  renounced  its  subjection  to  the 
Spanish  government,  and  opened  its  doors  for  the  reception 
of  the  Jewish  refugees,  all  of  which  contributed  to  the 
amelioration  of  their  general  condition.  Yet  it  must  be 
also  remembered  that  these  various  causes  worked  but 
slowly  and  gradually,  that  the  fury  of  persecution  which 
peculiarly  characterized  the  middle  ages  had  only  slackened ; 
that  the  Jews  were  no  longer  massacred,  tortured,  pillaged, 
or  arbitrarily  expelled  as  in  the  time  of  the  crusades  ;  at 
least  such  events  were  now  of  rare  occurrence  ;  but  the  ana- 
thema of  public  contempt,  humiliation,  and  exclusion  from 


no 

every  public  or  private  connection  still  lay  heavily  upon 
them,  until  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  period 
in  1789,  when  a  brighter  horizon  rose  to  view,  as  much  for 
the  whole  civilized  world  as  for  the  scattered  remnant  of 
Israel. 

JEWS    IN    THE    SCLAVONIAN    COUNTRIES. 

The  history  of  the  Jews  in  the  Sclavonian  countries, 
Russia,  Poland,  Bohemia,  and  the  Austro-Hungarian  mon- 
archy, acquires  an  especial  interest  only  in  the  centuries 
succeeding  the  middle-ages,  though  they  lived  very  early 
and  in  great  numbers  in  Poland,  and  were  numerous  in  Prague 
before  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  where  Boleslaus  II- 
granted  them  permission  to  build  a  synagogue  in  recompense 
for  their  services  in  his  wars  against  the  Pagan  tribes,  and  to 
Boleslaus  V.,  duke  of  Poland  (1264)  the  Jews  were  indebted 
for  peculiar  privileges.  His  great-grandson  King  Cassimir 
showed  them  still  greater  favor,  out  of  love,  it  is  said,  for  a 
beautiful  Jewess  named  Esther.  An  authority  before  us 
courteously  says,  "  The  beauty  of  the  Polish  Jews,  both  men 
and  women,  is  remarkable,  partly  as  the  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  their  nation,  and  partly  as  an  endowment  which  they 
share  in  common  with  the  population  of  that  interesting 
country,"  and  further  compliments  them  on  their  extraordi- 
nary sagacity,  which,  we  presume,  will  not  be  disputed.  The 
condition  of  the  Jews  in  those  countries  was  not  unfavorable, 
at  least  tolerable.  They  enjoyed  the  protection  of  their 
kings,  and,  with  exception  of  the  usual  restraints,  were  under 
the  general  law.  Banishments  and  persecution  rarely  oc- 
curred, except  by  an  invasion  of  Tartars  and  Moscovites. 

They  were  allowed  to  have  their  synagogues  and  talmudi- 
cal  schools,  and  even  the  civil  and  criminal  judicature  over 
their  own  people  was  left  in  the  hands  of  their  rabbinical 
leaders.  The  royal  protection  was  here  also  more  of  a  rea- 


Ill 


lity  and  more  effectual  than  in  the  German  states.  Any 
infraction  of  their  rights  was  duly  punished,  and  at  the  call 
of  "  Help  !"  during  the  night,  the  neighbors  were  required  by 
law  to  give  their  assistance  or  be  accountable  for  the  results 
of  their  neglect.  Though  excluded  from  many  profitable 
pursuits  on  account  of  not  being  admitted  to  the  guilds  or 
corporations  together  with  the  Christians,  they  could  peace- 
fully follow  the  trades  of  baker,  butcher,  brewer,  tailor,  shoe- 
maker, and  the  like.  The  government  found  these  regula- 
tions to  its  interest,  since  the  Jews  were  more  profitable  to 
the  community  as  merchants  than  as  mechanics.  It  was 
considered  a  peculiar  privilege  to  the  Jews  in  Poland  that 
any  of  their  nation  who  embraced  Christianity  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  army  became  by  right  a  noble  ;  and 
to  this  day  many  of  the  Polish  nobility  acknowledge  their 
descent  from  Jewish  families.  Privileges,  elsewhere  con- 
ferred upon  the  nobility  alone,  were  in  this  country  granted 
even  to  unbaptized  Jews.  In  the  Sclavonic  countries  the 
Jews  continued  for  centuries  to  form  an  essential  element 
of  society  by  means  of  their  extraordinary  activity.  They 
formed  the  middle  class  between  the  nobility  and  the  rest 
of  the  inhabitants  who  were  no  better  than  serfs,  and  com- 
merce and  retail  trade  were  entirely  in  their  hands.  But  they 
were  not  always  exempt  from  false  accusations  and  conse- 
quent persecution.  Thus  in  1541  they  were  accused  of 
having  been  the  cause  of  a  series  of  incendiary  fires  which 
at  that  time  desolated  Bohemia,  and  they  had  already  re- 
ceived or  lers  from  the  emperor  to  leave  the  country,  when 
fortunately  the  real  culprits  were  discovered  and  the  Jews 
cleared  from  guilt.  Soon  after  a  new  persecution  was  raised 
with  threats  of  expulsion  ;  while  an  inquiry  was  set  on  foot 
whether  the  Jewish  prayer-book  contained  curses  against 
the  Christians.  They  gained  but  little  in  being  absolved 
from  this  new  accusation,  for  a  decree  of  banishment  was 
on  the  point  of  being  hurled  against  the  whole  community, 


112 

when  one  of  them,  Mordecai  Temak,  obtained  the  interven- 
tion of  Pope  Pius  IV.,  and  by  this  means  averted  the  execu- 
tion of  the  decree.  Another  disaster  was,  about  the  same 
time,  added  to  their  misfortunes  by  a  fire  which  at  Prague 
consumed  the  whole  Jewish  quarter,  and  when  in  1648  the 
inhabitants  of  Prague  had  to  defend  their  city  against  the 
Swedes,  the  Jews  suffered  much  from  the  bombardment  of 
the  city  by  the  enemy  ;  their  quarter  having  been  most  ex- 
posed to  the  attack,  but  when  the  war  was  over,  the  emperor 
bestowed  much  praise  upon  the  Jews  for  their  efficient  ser- 
vices in  the  erection  of  fortifications  and  batteries,  and  their 
general  zeal  and  activity  in  the  defence  of  the  city,  and  pre- 
sented them  on  the  occasion  with  a  clock  to  adorn  their 
synagogue.  When  peace  was  established,  the  Jews  gained 
permission  to  take  part  in  the  public  festivities,  and  join  the 
procession  with  two  banners  which  had  on  a  former  occasion 
been  presented  to  them  by  the  emperor  of  Germany.  The 
same  year,  however,  brought  great  calamity  on  all  the  inhab- 
itants of  Poland  in  consequence  of  an  insurrection  of  the 
Cossacks,  caused  by  some  oppressive  measures  adopted  by 
Vladislaus.  The  Jews  seemed  to  be  the  especial  object  of 
their  fury,  and  suffered  fearfully.  Scarcely  a  town  in  Poland 
which  did  not  share  in  the  disaster,  and  great  numbers  of  Jews 
were  driven  from  their  homes  to  seek  a  refuge  among  stran- 
gers ;  many  of  them  could  not  find  a  resting-place  until  they 
reached  Holland  or  England.  The  year  1744  seemed  likely 
to  bring  upon  the  two  hundred  thousand  Jews  of  Bohemia 
a  catastrophe  more  terrible  than  any  they  had  experienced 
for  the  space  of  two  centuries — a  banishment  in  perpetuity 
from  that  country.  The  States-General  of  the  Netherlands, 
at  the  request  of  the  synagogue  of  Amsterdam,  took  a  lively 
interest  in  their  case,  and,  supported  by  the  English  govern- 
ment, succeeded  in  making  manifest  the  innocence  of  the 
Jews,  and -persuading  the  emperor  to  reverse  this  terrible 


decree — not,  however,  before  thousands  of  Jews  had  left  the 
country. 

The  Jewish  population  of  the  countries  now  under  dis- 
cussion was  made  up  of  emigrants  from  different  lands. 
The  Hungarian  Jews  came  mostly  from  Italy,  the  Polish 
from  Germany,  while  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  com- 
munities consisted  of  Jews  from  France  and  Italy ;  but  we 
find  no  accounts  of  very  early  Jewish  settlements  in  Russia 
or  in  the  Muscovite  territory.  Peter  the  Great  admitted 
them  in  his  domain,  but  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1745) 
their  residence  in  Russia  was  again  forbidden  on  account  of 
a  correspondence  which  had  been  discovered  with  the  exiles 
of  Siberia.  The  large  portion  of  the  Jewish  population  of 
Poland  which  is  under  the  sceptre  of  Russia  has  been  often 
tyrannized  over,  but  never  driven  out  by  the  government. 

We  hear  also  of  another  part  of  Russia  in  which  a  body 
of  Jews  have  not  only  existed,  but  attained  destinction  in  a 
peculiar  manner.  In  the  Ukraine  they  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  agriculture  and  the  study  of  natural  history,  and 
are  said  to  have  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  Also 
in  the  Crimea  there  have  long  been  whole  villages  of  Jews 
distinguished  by  their  prosperity  and  mental  culture.  One 
peculiar  feature  in  the  history  of  Jewish  population  of  Poland 
is,  that  some  of  them  belong  to  the  sect  of  Karaites.  It 
appears  that  still  greater  favor  was  shown  them  than  to  the 
rabbinical  Jews  because  of  their  aversion  of  the  Talmud. 
The  Karaites  seem  to  have  come  into  Poland  from  Tar- 
tary  ;  and  King  Stephen  in  the  year  1578  issued  an  edict  in 
their  favor.  Before  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Prague  was  the  principal  seat  of  rabbinical  learning.  It 
was  there  that  the  celebrated  R.  Jacob  Falk  taught,  and 
gained  renown  by  introducing  a  new  method  of  debating  and 
sifting,  requiring  the  scholars  to  dispute,  if  necessary,  with 
the  master  every  minor  point  of  the  subject  under  discus- 


H4 

sion,  in  order  thereby  to  sharpen  their  wit  and  allow  full 
scope  to  their  mental  powers.  The  peculiar  way  of  intona- 
tion or  chanting  in  the  study  of  the  Talmud  is  also  ascribed 
to  this  master.  In  Prague  also  flourished  R.  David  Ganz, 
author  of  a  well-known  work,  "  Zemach  David,"  on  Jewish 
history  and  chronology  ;  'R.  Judah  Bezalel,  R.  Mordecai 
Jaffe,  and  many  others.  Also  Bohemia  had  its  distinguished 
academies  during  the  same  period  ;  but  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  seminaries  of  Poland 
rivalled  and  subsequently  surpassed  their  sister-colleges,  and 
from  that  time  forward  supplied  the  German  congregations 
with  teachers  and  Rabbis.  We  must  not  omit  to  observe 
here  that  the  studies  pursued  in  colleges,  and  more  espe- 
cially the  Polish,  were  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the 
Talmud  ;  besides  the  great  waste  of  time  given  to  the  study 
of  Cabbalah,  and  even  worse  than  waste,  for  this  study  laid 
a  strong  foundation  in  the  student's  mind  for  the  reception 
of  superstitious  ideas  :  for  the  belief  in  the  supernatural, 
power  of  talismans,  amulets,  and  the  like.  And  herein  we 
notice  the  striking  difference  between  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese schools  and  those  of  Poland  and  Germany.  While 
the  latter  occupied  themselves  with  the  hairsplittings  of  the 
most  trifling  phrases  of  the  Talmud,  trie  best  result  of  which 
was  that  it  sharpened  the  senses,  the  former  combined 
with  a  study  of  the  Talmud  that  of  Jewish  theology,  a  search- 
ing into  the  spirit  of  the  Jewish  religion,  the  writing  and  the 
study  of  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  poetry,  and,  what 
is  by  no  means  the  least,  an  earnest  and  steady  application 
to  the  sciences.  That  these  were  thus  better  fitted  for  a 
social  intercourse  with  their  Christian  fellow-men,  and  gained 
a  better  reputation  as  accomplished  scholars,  while  the  others 
by  their  superstitious  practices  often  exposed  themselves  to 
accusations  of  using  magical  spells  drawn  from  the  Talmud 
to  the  injury  of  Christians,  need  hardly  be  said. 


SHABBETAI  ZEBI  AND  JOSEPH  FRANK. 

The  following  account  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the 
pernicious  results  proceeding  from  a  partiality  for  the  Cab- 
balah,  though  the  hero  of  our  story  issued  not  from  Poland 
or  Germany,  but  from  Turkey.  In  1625,  Shabbetai  Zebi  was 
born  at  Smyrna.  In  childhood  already  he  gained  the  admira- 
tion of  his  circle  on  account  of  extraordinary  intelligence  and 
cleverness  ;  at  fifteen  he  was  considered  a  perfect  Talmudist ; 
and  at  eighteen  commenced  his  career  as  a  teacher  of  the 
Cabbalah  to  which  he  drew  large  audiences  of  disciples.  He 
made  himself  conspicuous  by  frequent  fasting  and  bathing, 
often  at  the  mysterious  hour  of  midnight,  in  which  ablutions 
his  disciples  joined  ;  gradually  he  assumed  the  character  of 
a  saint  or  a  prophet.  The  story  runs  that  he  was  endowed 
with  extraordinary  personal  beauty  which,  in  spite  of  his 
severe  penitential  practices,  increased  from  day  to  day,  and 
that  his  presence  imparted  a  delightful  perfume  which  was 
owing,  he  said,  to  his  having  been  anointed  by  the  Patriarchs. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-four  he  declared  himself  the  Messiah 
who  would  soon  deliver  Israel  from  the  oppression  of  Christ- 
ians and  Mussulmans,  and  in  token  of  his  authority  he  ven- 
tured to  pronounce  the  name  Jehovah,  which  was  then  con- 
sidered one  of  the  boldest  crimes  a  Jew  could  perpetrate. 
His  fame  began  to  spread  far  and  wide,  but  the  saying  that 
" nobody  can  be  a  prophet  in  his  own  place"  held  good  in 
this  case  also,  for  the  rabbinical  authority  of  Smyrna  declared 
him  an  impostor  and  an  outlaw,  authorizing  any  one  who 
dared  to  take  his  life,  and  declaring  themselves  prepared  to 
pay  the  fine  which  the  government  would  impose  for  such 
an  act.  Hereupon  the  man  fled  to  Salonica,  where  he  was 
honored  by  the  populace,  but  likewise  denounced  by  the 
rabbis.  Again  he  was  obliged  to  flee  from  place  to  place 
until  he  reached  Jerusalem,  where  he  contrived  to  remain 


u6 

for  a  number  of  years  promulgating  his  cabbalistic  ideas. 
After  living  for  fourteen  years  in  comparative  obscurity,  he 
reappeared  in  his  native  city,  where  he  was  now  received 
with  great  enthusiasm.  People  came  from  all  points  to  do 
homage  to  the  Messiah.  The  fanaticism  rose  so  high  in  the 
community  that  young  men  and  women  felt  elated  beyond 
themselves,  joining  in  song  and  dance  to  the  honor  of  the 
great  prophet.  Even  his  opponents  had  changed  sides  to  a 
considerable  extent.  At  last  the  report  of  his  doings  and  his 
pretentions  reached  the  sultan,  who  ordered  his  arrest.  When 
the  royal  messenger  appeared  before  Shabbetai  to  seize  him, 
he  himself  was  so  over-awed  that  he  dared  not  lay  hands  on 
him  and  returned  trembling  to  his  master.  A  second  officer 
was  sent,  but  with  the  same  result.  Shabbetai  then  had  the 
good  sense  to  surrender  himself;  he  was  admitted  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  monarch,  and  the  man  before  whom  so  many 
had  trembled,  stood  himself  dumbfounded  in  the  presence  of 
the  grand  seignior.  Being  ignorant  of  the  Turkish  language, 
a  Jewish  apostate  was  appointed  as  interpreter.  The  sultan 
asked  of  Shabbetai  if  he  was  the  Messiah  ;  he  stood  in  trem- 
bling silence.  The  sultan  then  proposed  a  practical  test  of 
his  messianic  qualities;  he  said  he  would  shoot  three  poisoned 
arrows  at  the  Messiah,  and  if  these  would  leave  him  unhurt 
he  would  acknowledge  his  title  and  join  in  his  ranks.  The 
cowardly  Messiah,  seeing  the  sultan  in  earnest  and  fearing  for 
his  life,  snatched  a  turban  from  one  of  the  pages  and  put  it 
on  his  head,  exclaiming,  "  I  am  a  Mussulman,"  stating  at  the 
same  time  that  he  had  only  waited  for  so  favorable  an  oppor- 
tunity to  publicly  embrace  Islamism.  The  sultan  was  not 
only  satisfied  with  this  declaration,  but  ordered  him  to  be 
treated  with  distinction  and  conferred  a  title  of  honor  on  him. 
Having  escaped  this  danger,  he  was  yet  emboldened  in  his 
imposture  and  stated  to  his  followers  that  by  the  will  of  God 
He  had  thus  changed,  and  cited  Scripture  and  Talmud  in 


support  of  his  act.  For  some  time  he  sustained  his  double 
character  with  great  success  ;  many  Jews  followed  his  example 
and  adopted  Mohammedanism ;  the  rabbis  became  alarmed 
at  the  result,  and  succeeded  in  laying  before  the  sultan  the 
confusion  and  damage  caused  to  their  communities  by  the 
strife  and  conversions  which  took  place  in  their  midst.  The 
Messiah  was  then  seized  and  confined  in  a  castle  where  he 
died  of  a  colic  in  the  year  1676.  It  might  be  supposed  that 
the  influence  of  Shabbetai  ceased  with  his  death.  This  is 
far  from  being  the  case.  His  teachings  became  more  firmly 
rooted  in  the  minds  of  his  followers,  and  Shabbetaism  forms 
to  this  day  a  sect  whose  faith  and  practice  rest  on  the  "  bruised 
reeds  "  of  the  Zohar  and  the  Cabbalah. 

The  career  of  another  adventurer  furnishes  us  an  additional 
and  rather  stronger  proof  of  the  danger  and  perplexity  in 
which  a  departure  from  the  plain  rational  principles  of  re- 
ligion, and  a  speculation  of  things  beyond  the  reach  of  our 
understanding  will  necessarily  involve  those  who  engage  in  it. 
Scarcely  a  century  after  the  disappearance  of  Shabbetai  Zebi, 
Joseph  Frank,  a  native  of  Poland,  and  distiller  of  brandy  by 
trade,  organized  a  new  sect  under  the  name  of  the  Zoharites. 
He  publicly  renounced  the  Talmud,  rejected  and  burned  it, 
and  in  the  mystical  teachings  of  the  Zohar  he  discovered  the 
doctrines  of  the  trinity,  of  original  sin,  and  the  appearance  of 
God  on  earth  in  the  person  of  Christ ;  it  is  uncertain  whether 
he  meant  Jesus  Christ  or  Shabbetai  Christ.  He  readily  con- 
sented to  be  baptized,  and  had  an  immense  number  of  follow- 
ers, who  did  so  likewise,  chiefly  in  Poland,  his  principal  field 
of  activity.  The  bishop  of  Camentz  gave  his  support  to  the 
matter,  and  the  new  departure  gained  general  favor.  The 
bishop  soon  after  died  and  the  church  of  Rome,  stirred  up  by 
the  rabbis,  began  to  look  upon  this  sect  as  dangerous,  and  it 
was  persecuted  on  account  of  its  Jewish  cabbalistic  procliv- 
ities, as  it  had  been  by  the  synagogue  for  its  Christian  dogmas. 


The  government  interfered  ;  condemned  some  to  hard  labor, 
and  others  to  have  one  side  of  the  beard  shaved  to  expose 
these  half-and-halves  to  ridicule  ;  while  Frank  was  imprisoned 
in  a  fortress,  from  which  he  was  delivered  by  the  Russians 
who  took  the  citadel  in  1777.  Frank  now  travelled  through 
Poland,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia  with  a  large  retinue  and  great 
pomp,  and  established  himself  in  Vienna,  where  immense 
quantities  of  treasure  flowed  constantly  into  his  coffers,  en- 
abling him  to  maintain  a  truly  royal  magnificence.  He  died 
of  apoplexy  in  1791,  having  attained  the  age  of  78.  With  his 
death  the  influx  of  wealth  ceased  ;  and  his  sect  sank  into  in- 
significance, though  remnants  of  it  are  still  existing  in  Poland, 
Moldavia,  and  Turkey.  Quite  a  number  of  persons  might  be 
named  who  from  time  to  time  presented  themselves  under 
the  claim  of  being  the  deliverers  of  Israel  or  regenerators  of 
the  world  at  large,  and  who  in  the  end  proved  to  be  either 
wilful  deceivers  or  deluded  zealots,  and  not  one  of  these 
pretenders  ever  fulfilled  the  mission  they  proposed  to 
accomplish  ;  on  the  contrary,  they  brought  about  nothing 
but  disturbance,  bloodshed,  and  utter  disappointment. 

JEWS  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS. 

One  of  the  places  of  refuge  where  the  Jewish  exiles  from 
Spain  found  a  safe  asylum,  and  where  they  attained  to 
great  opulence  and  distinction,  is  Holland.  As  we  have  not 
hitherto  spoken  of  their  dwelling  in  that  country,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  begin  with  a  short  account  of  their  residence 
there  prior  to  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  history  of  the  Jews  in  the  Netherlands  during  the 
middle  ages  is,  on  a  smaller  scale,  much  like  that  of  Ger- 
many and  the  north  of  France.  They  were  early  settled  in 
the  provinces  of  Belgium  and  the  northern  part  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  records  of  history  bear  witness  that, 
after  the  invasion  of  the  Normans,  the  commerce  in  those 


provinces  was  all  carried  on  by  Jews,  and  that  the  entire 
failure  of  trade  in  Liege  must  be  attributed  to  their  ban- 
ishment from  that  city.  Jews  were  living  in  Flanders 
already  at  the  time  of  the  crusades.  Later  some  fugitives 
from  France  and  England  established  themselves  there. 
They  were  driven  out  in  the  twelfth  century,  but  by  the 
fourteenth  had  already  settled  there  again  in  great  num- 
bers. In  Guelderland  the  Jews  were  numerous  and  enjoyed 
the  protection  of  its  counts,  especially  at  Zutphen,  Does- 
burg,  and  Arnheim  ;  still,  a  noble  lady  of  Guelderland  was 
burnt  at  Cologne  for  having  married  a  Jew,  which  was  con- 
sidered a  crime  equivalent  to  adultery.  In  Utrecht  the  Jews 
resided  till  1444,  at  which  time  they  were  completely 
driven  out  of  the  town;  and  till  the  revolution  of  1795  ^n 
Holland,  a  residence  in  that  city  was  still  forbidden,  though 
they  were  numerous  and  wealthy  in  surrounding  towns  and 
villages.  But  the  history  of  the  settlement  of  the  Jews  in 
Holland  becomes  most  important  and  interesting  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Several  families  of 
the  new  Christians  emigrated  from  time  to  time  into  Hol- 
land whenever  a  favorable  opportunity  offered,  without 
however,  removing  the  mask  of  Christianity. 

The  first  indication  of  their  settlement  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  United  Provinces  after  the  expulsion  is  found 
to  have  been  in  1516.  At  that  time  some  refugees  from 
Spain  petitioned  Charles  V.,  the  grandson  and  successor  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  for  permission  to  reside  and  exer- 
cise their  religion  in  his  dominions.  Their  appeal  was 
unheeded,  for  several  edicts  entirely  excluded  even  new 
Christians  from  Holland,  as  well  as  from  Spain.  And  yet 
many  Jews  were  to  be  found  in  these  provinces  holding  the 
same  position  as  those  who  remained  in  the  peninsula. 
Their  religion  was  not  tolerated  ;  but  by  practising  it  with 
the  greatest  secrecy  they  lived  and  prospered  under  Span- 


I2O 


ish  names.  Both  at  the  court  of  Madrid  and  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  at  Brussels,  descendants 
of  Israel  were  to  be  found,  who,  afterwards,  renounced 
Catholicism  to  make  an  open  confession  of  their  true  faith 
at  Amsterdam.  Also,  during  the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  the 
Dutch  were  strictly  forbidden  to  give  an  asylum  to  the 
Jews;  but  when,  in  1579,  the  Netherlands  threw  off  the 
Spanish  yoke  and  gained  their  independence,  which  result 
was  greatly  promoted  by  the  immense  riches  the  Jews 
had  brought  into  the.  country,  they  were  not  only  allowed 
more  freedom,  but  rose  to  high  estimation.  Their  talents 
and  their  noble  descent  were  recognized  ;  their  number 
gradually  increased,  and  their  refined  manners  procured 
them  an  introduction  in  the  best  society,  so  that  they  sub- 
sequently became  the  associates  of  the  princes  and  nobles 
of  the  land. 

Among  the  many  families  who  eagerly  looked  for  oppor- 
tunities to  escape  the  tyrannical  despotism  to  which  they 
were  subjected,  was  the  family  Rodriguez  Lopez,  of  Portu- 
gal. Lady  Rodriguez  sent  her  son  Manuel,  and  her  daugh- 
ter Maria,  who  was  exceedingly  beautiful,  in  company  with 
a  few  others,  to  find  a  safe  home  in  Holland.  The  ship 
which  conveyed  them  was  taken  by  an  English  man-of-war 
under  command  of  a  duke,  who  became  enamored  of 
Maria,  and  offered  her  his  hand,  which,  however,  she 
refused,  saying  she  preferred  to  live  like  a  Jewess.  The 
whole  party  were  put  in  prison  on  their  arrival  in  London. 
The  beauty  of  the  imprisoned  Jewess,  and  the  circum- 
stances under  which  she  arrived,  became  the  general 
subject  of  conversation  in  the  town,  and  the  eccentric 
maiden  queen  Elizabeth,  the  promoter  of  Protestantism  in 
England,  desiring  to  see  the  young  lady  who  was  bold 
enough  to  refuse  a  duke's  hand  on  the  ground  of  religious 
principles,  sent  for  her,  and  drove  with  her  in  an  open 


121 

carriage  about  the  town.  Shortly  afterwards  the  party 
were  allowed  to  proceed  to  Holland,  and  landed  at  Emden. 
From  there  ten  individuals  came  to  Amsterdam  in  the  year 
1594;  resumed  their  original  Jewish  names,  as  well  as  the 
open  profession  of  their  religion.  They  were  accompanied 
by  a  German  rabbi  of  Emden,  who  aided  and  instructed 
them,  and  in  gratitude  for  his  services  the  synagogue 
granted  him  and  his  posterity  many  privileges,  and  a 
perpetual  right  of  membership. 

Henry  II.  in  1550  encouraged  many  Converses,  not  only 
to  settle  in  France,  but  allowed  them  to  throw  off  the  dis- 
guise of  Christianity  and  establish  congregations  of  their 
own ;  but  as  Holland  offered  better  inducements  for  the 
extension  of  their  commerce,  a  goodly  number  of  Jews 
came  to  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  and  other  mari- 
time towns,  and  were  later  joined  by  Converses  who  had 
been  driven  from  the  peninsula  by  Philip  III.  At  Antwerp, 
the  concealed  Jews  were  quite  numerous,  and  the  ancestors 
of  many  families  who  later  settled  at  Amsterdam  and  The 
Hague  had  long  resided  there.  Among  them  was  Don 
Manuel  Alvarez  de  Pinto  y  Ribera,  gentleman  of  the  house- 
hold to  the  king  of  Spain  and  knight  of  the  order  of  St. 
James,  from  whom  descended  the  family  of  de  Pinto,  well 
known  in  the  Dutch  synagogue  ;  Don  Francisco  de  Silva  y 
Solis,  afterwards  marquis  of  Montfort,  who  at  the  head  of 
his  company,  when  serving  under  the  emperor  Leopold  I., 
contributed  greatly  to  the  defeat  of  the  French  marshal  de 
Crequi,  in  the  campaign  of  1673;  Don  Antonio  Lopes 
Suasso,  agent  of  the  king  of  Spain,  and  invested  by  that 
prince  with  the  barony  of  Avernas  le  Gras,  in  Brabant.  It 
was  this  baron  Suasso,  who,  when  afterwards  established 
at  The  Hague,  offered  to  William  III.,  in  1628,  a  million  of 
florins  for  his  expedition  to  England,  to  be  repaid  only  in 
case  of  success.  From  various  records  of  the  Portuguese 
6 


122 

congregation  at  Amsterdam,  it  appears  that  in  1596,  for 
the  first  time,  the  Day  of  Atonement  was  celebrated  by  a 
small  number  of  men.  The  mayor  of  the  city  having  sur- 
prised the  assembly,  took  it  at  first  for  a  meeting  of  Roman 
Catholics,  which  was  at  that  time  forbidden,  but,  being 
better  informed,  left  them  unmolested.  In  1598,  the  first 
-synagogue  was  erected  ;  and  R.  Joseph  Pardo,  of  Salonica, 
engaged  as  their  chief  rabbi ;  ten  years  later,  another 
synagogue,  was  built,  and  in  1618,  a  third.  In  1639,  the 
three  which  had  hitherto  been  under  separate  administra- 
tion were  united  to  form  henceforward  a  single  community 
of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews,  under  the  name  of  Bet 
Jahacob.  In  1675,  they  erected  the  splendid  large  struc- 
ture which  now  is  one  of  the  finest  buildings  in  the  city, 
much  admired  by  the  inhabitants  and  by  visitors  from 
abroad.  It  is  the  largest  synagogue  in  Europe,  having  a 
capacity  to  accommodate  about  5, coo  worshippers.  The 
Portuguese  congregation  of  Amsterdam  has  been  always 
distinguished  for  the  vast  capital  it  had  at  command,  and 
even  now  we  think  it  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  its  trea- 
sure amounts  to  millions.  The  number  of  scrolls  of  the 
law,  the  solid  silver  and  golden  ornaments  for  the  same, 
the  heavy  chased  and  very  antique  lavers,  some  of  which 
could  not  be  bought  for  100,000  florins,  the  splendidly 
embroidered  coverings  and  other  temple-furniture,  form 
the  finest  collection  of  the  kind  to  be  found  in  any  Jewish 
congregation.  The  ancient  burying-ground  of  the  congre- 
gation is  still  at  Ouderkerk,  a  village  about  five  miles  from 
town.  The  first  man  interred  there  was  Manuel  Pimentel, 
the  playmate  and  confidant  of  Henry  IV.,  and  two  years 
later  the  body  of  Elias  Rodrigo  Montalto,  physician  to 
queen  Mary  of  Medicis,  was  by  order  of  that  lady 
embalmed  and  sent  to  Amsterdam  for  interment.  A 
Hebrew  printing  press  was  soon  established,  and  some  of 


123 

the  finest  specimens  of  Hebrew  printing  yet  extant  were 
issued  there.  After  Amsterdam,  the  prosperity  and  esteem 
gained  by  the  Jews  in  Holland  has  been  highest  at  The 
Hague,  and  one  of  the  first  Israelites  to  whom  letters  of 
naturalization  were  granted,  in  1672,  was  of  Polish  origin; 
his  descendants,  the  Polak  Daniels,  are  still  living  and 
highly  respected  in  that  city.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
community  of  the  Netherlands  have  been  noted  for  the  ex- 
tensive commercial  relations  in  which  its  members  were  en- 
gaged with  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  the  Levant,  Brazil,  etc.; 
by  an  unblemished  reputation  for  probity  and  honor,  ever 
accompanying  their  immense  riches,  and  by  the  loyal  ser- 
vices they  rendered  in  more  than  one  critical  situation  to 
the  country,  and  to  the  House  of  Orange.  It  is  not,  there- 
fore, to  be  wondered  that  the  Dutch  government  appeared 
at  all  times  the  protector  of  the  rights  of  its  Jewish  subjects 
among  foreign  powers;  and  to  the  present  day  there  is 
hardly  any  of  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Orange  and  Nassau 
who  failed  to  pay  at  least  one  visit  of  ceremony  to  the  great 
synagogue  at  Amsterdam. 

Among  the  archives  of  that  congregation  there  are 
several  records  showing  that  a  correspondence  was  held,  in 
the  year  1622,  between  Christian  IV.,  of  Denmark,  and  the 
Parnassim  (directors)  of  the  Portuguese  community,  for  the 
purpose  of  inviting  some  of  its  member  to  establish  them- 
selves in  his  dominions,  with  a  promise  of  entire  liberty  of 
conscience,  freedom  of  commerce,  and  special  privileges. 
Similar  invitations  were  received  from  the  duke  of  Savoy, 
and  from  the  duke  of  Modena.  It  is  a  fact  that,  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  families  and  synagogues  of  Portu- 
guese Jews  were  settled  and  flourishing  in  the  Danish  states, 
chiefly  at  Holstein.  At  Copenhagen  also  they  had  a 
community,  but  their  settlements  at  Gluckstadt  and  Altona 


124 

have  long  been  their  chief  establishments  in  that  part  of 
the  world. 

At  Hamburg  their  well-being  has  been  even  more  re- 
markable, and  the  protection  granted  to  Jewish  refugees  by 
the  king  of  Denmark  seems  to  have  been  one  of  its  princi- 
pal causes.  From  the  history  of  commerce,  we  know  the 
spirit  of  rivalry  which  has  ever  existed  between  this  free 
imperial  city  and  the  commercial  towns  of  Holstein. 
Altona  in  particular  was  feared  as  a  rival  by  the  magistrates 
of  Hamburg,  when  they  beheld  her  enriched  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  Jewish  population,  with  its  wealth  and 
important  mercantile  connections.  Notwithstanding  the 
opposition  of  some  of  the  citizens  and  the  Protestant  clergy, 
and  in  spite  of  the  complaints  of  the  emperor — that  a 
city  which  had  expelled  Roman  Catholics  should  admit 
Jews — the  magistrates  of  Hamburg  considered  themselves 
compelled,  by  their  commercial  position  with  respect  to 
Altona,  not  only  to  admit,  but  to  confer  many  privileges 
upon  the  Portuguese  Jews.  This  social  prosperity  was  much 
advanced  by  the  high  honor  awarded  to  some  distinguished 
families,  who  were  employed  as  agents  or  residents,  by  dif- 
ferent foreign  powers.  The  kings  of  Denmark,  the  kings 
of  Portugal,  and  queen  Christina,  of  Sweden,  employed 
notable  members  of  the  synagogue  as  their  representatives 
in  Hamburg. 

The  success  of  the  Portuguese  Jews  in  Amsterdam  drew 
a  great  many  emigrants  also  from  Germany  and  Poland, 
and  the  accession  was  so  considerable  that  in  a  short  time 
the  latter  far  outnumbered  the  former.  The  Jews  of  Poland 
and  Lithuania  had  endured  great  cruelties  from  the  Cos- 
sacks and  from  popular  disturbances,  and  no  less  than 
three  thousand  of  them  embarked  at  one  time  for  Holland, 
and  received  hospitality  at  Amsterdam.  This  increase,  how- 
ever, was  far  from  pleasing  to  the  Portuguese  Jews.  They 


I25 

looked  upon  the  new-comers  as  intruders,  and  would  not 
allow  their  claims  to  equality  and  fraternity.  We  must 
bear  in  mind  that  the  Sephardim  came  with  great  wealth, 
with  titles  of  nobility,  with  refinement  and  general  scholar- 
ship, and  with  no  small  share  of  that  haughtiness  so  peculiar 
to  the  Spanish,  which  spirit  they  especially  imbibed  in 
their  intercourse  with  the  aristocracy  at  home.  The  new 
emigrants,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not  provided  with  that 
universal  passport  "  money  ;"  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion they  had  been  compelled  to  live  in  exclusion  ;  were 
oppressed,  degraded,  crushed ;  and  as  circumstances  form 
man's  character,  theirs  had  become  debased  in  their  own 
estimation;  they  had  lost  their  self-respect.  Precluded  from 
all  honorable  pursuits,  they  had  been  obliged  to  resort  to 
the  meanest  occupations  in  order  to  support  themselves. 
Their  naturally  bright  intellect  had  been  kept  under  the 
bushel  of  cruel  oppression  ;  .and  their  unqualified  prejudice 
to  all  that  was  not  strictly  Jewish  debarred  even  the  few 
gleams  that  might  have  entered  to  enliven  their  spirits. 
Hence  the  Portuguese  Jews  could  not  recognize  in  them 
their  brethren  of  the  house  of  Israel.  They  spoke  a  differ- 
ent language;  neither  understood  the  other  ;  and  even  the 
common  password,  "  Shemang  Israel,"  as  the  Germans  pro- 
nounced it,  sounded  like  spurious  in  the  ears  of  the  Portu- 
guese. No  wonder,  therefore,  that  they  not  only  declined 
all  association  with  them,  but  considered  their  presence  as 
injurious  to  their  own  interest  and  reputation.  For  a  long 
time  the  German  Jews  in  Holland  had  to  contend  with 
many  difficulties,  and  did  not  obtain  equality  of  rights  with 
their  more  fortunate  brethren  ;  still  they  were  protected,  and 
enjoyed  full  liberty  of  conscience.  But  they  were  persever- 
ing and  industrious.  In  1636,  permission  was  at  last  granted 
them  to  appropriate  to  themselves  a  piece  of  ground  for  a 
burial-place,  and  in  1656,  they  were  allowed  to  erect  a  house 


126 

of  prayer.  Thus  the  Jewish  population  of  Holland  was 
divided,  and  to  the  present  day  consists  of  two  distinct  and 
separate  bodies. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  the  exiles  from  the  peninsula, 
now  transplanted  on  the  free  soil  of  the  Netherlands, 
would  have  gained  new  energy  in  the  pursuit  of  literature 
and  the  sciences;  that  they  would  have  exerted  themselves 
for  the  benefit  of  their  less  favored  brethren  ;  but  this  was 
not  so.  The  zeal  and  activity  which  they  had  formerly 
evinced  in  various  departments  was  superseded  in  many 
by  the  indolence  which  accompanies  an  excess  of  luxury, 
the  result  of  their  great  prosperity  and  complete  security. 
Their  manners  changed  and  became  more  corrupt;  and 
the  glory  of  their  former  greatness  degenerated  into  an 
object  of  vanity  and  party  spirit,  in  which  the  origin  of 
these  distinctions  was  forgotten,  while  the  aristocracy  of 
money  exercised  the  greatest  influence.  In  the  mean  time, 
the  German  Jews  had  learned  better  to  appreciate  the 
blessing  of  liberty,  and  took  advantage  of  the  privileges 
they  enjoyed.  They  felt  that  they  had  a  great  object  to 
accomplish  ;  they  advanced,  while  the  Portuguese  retro- 
graded ;  and  to-day  many  of  their  members  fill  some  of 
the  highest  and  most  responsible  offices  in  the  kingdom, 
while  their  proud  brethren  have  little  more  left  than  the 
boast  of  their  past  ancestral  glory. 

EMINENT  SCHOLARS  OF  HOLLAND. 

The  degeneracy  of  the  Portuguese  Jews  in  Holland, 
spoken  of  above,  must,  of  course,  not  be  suppo-sed  to  have 
begun  at  once  with  their  settlement  in  their  new  home  ;  it 
was  a  thing  of  slow  progress,  and  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  produced  some  eminent  men,  without 
a  notice  of  whom  our  history  would  be  quite  incomplete. 

Among  the  great  men  brought  up  in  the  synagogue  of 


127 

Holland,  no  one  has  been  more  generally  known  by  his 
learning,  his  literary  productions,  and  his  public  acts  than 
Menasseh  Ben  Israel.  Born  at  Lisbon  in  1604,  he  came  to 
Amsterdam  when  yet  a  child,  with  his  father  Joseph  Ben 
Israel,  who  had  greatly  suffered  from  the  Inquisition,  and 
escaped  with  great  difficulty  and  the  loss  of  his  whole  for- 
tune. Young  Menasseh  was  brought  up  in  strict  Judaism, 
and  received  a  liberal  education.  Gifted  with  an  enlarged 
and  penetrating  mind,  he  early  became  familiar  with  the 
elements  of  Jewish  theology  and  acquired  also  a  know- 
ledge of  the  Castilian,  Portuguese,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Arabic 
languages.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  already  listened  to 
with  interest  as  a  public  speaker,  and  several  prominent 
Christian  scholars,  as  well  as  Jewish,  were  admirers  of  his 
talents.  At  eighteen  he  was  appointed  chief  rabbi  of  one 
of  the  three  synagogues  at  Amsterdam,  in  which  office  he 
continued  until  he  was  chosen  as  delegate  of  the  whole 
community  to  represent  the  same  before  the  protector 
Cromwell,  with  a  view  of  gaining  a  readmission  of  the  Jews 
into  Great  Britain,  the  particulars  and  success  of  which 
undertaking  we  will  speak  of  further  on.  His  son  Samuel 
accompanied  him  on  his  voyage  to  England,  and  was  honored 
by  receiving  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and  of 
Medicine  from  the  University  of  Oxford.  R.  Menasseh 
returned  in  1658,  and  settled  in  Middleburgh,  where  the 
tomb  of  the  son,  who  died  before  his  father,  is  still  to  be 
seen.  Among  the  numerous  works  written  by  the  father, 
some  in  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Latin,  or  English,  we  notice 
his  "  Treatise  on  the  Frailty  of  Human  Nature,"  and  "  Man's 
Inclination  to  Sin,"  in  which  he  combats  the  doctrine  of  Pe- 
lagius,  a  monk  of  the  fourth  century,  who  denies  original 
sin,  and  asserts  man's  perfect  freedom  to  choose  the  good 
or  evil;  ''Three  books  on  the  Resurrection  of  the  Dead;  " 
and  "  The  Conciliator,"  in  which  he  endeavors  to  reconcile 


128 

the  apparent  contradictions  of  the  Bible.  This  last  work 
gained  him  much  reputation  among  Christians  also,  and  the 
year  after  its  publication,  a  Latin  translation  of  it  by  Diony- 
sius  Vossius,  appeared  in  print.  He  died  at  Amsterdam 
in  1659 

Uriel  da  Costa  (in  Portugal  called  Gabriel  da  Costa,  also 
A  Costa)  was  a  contemporary  of  the  above  subject.  Born 
at  Oporto  about  1590  of  noble  and  wealthy  parents  of  the 
class  of  New  Christians,  he  was  brought  up  in  the  Catholic 
faith,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  held  the  position  of 
canon  and  treasurer  of  a  collegiate  church  in  his  native 
city.  As  his  conscience  could  find  no  rest  in  the  profession 
of  the  Catholic  religion,  he  determined  to  yield  his  rank, 
his  wealth,  and  his  country  in  order  to  adopt  in  Holland 
the  Mosaic  religion,  and  thus  find  rest  for  his  troubled  soul. 
His  mother  and  younger  brothers,  led  by  his  influence,  ac- 
companied him  on  his  journey  to  join  the  synagogue  at 
Amsterdam,  where  the  family  has  ever  since  been  estab- 
lished. Da  Costa,  however,  did  not  find  in  Holland  what 
he  eagerly  looked  for,  namely,  the  Mosaic  religion  in  its 
purity.  He  had  left  the  church  which  he  thought  too  much 
burdened  with  Roman  traditions  and  inconsistencies,  and 
found  instead  a  Mosaic  religion  overloaded  with  rabbinical 
traditions  and  superstitious  practices.  Being  excommuni- 
cated for  his  too  liberal  views,  he  learned  to  his  sorrow  that 
free  thought  and  the  expression  of  it  was  as  dangerous  here 
as  it  was  in  Spain.  He  wrote  a  book  under  the  title  of 
"  Examination  of  Pharisaical  Tradition,"  in  which  he  ex- 
pressed his  views  on  the  Books  of  Moses  as  being  divine, 
but  denying  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  life  to 
come,  and  all  rabbinical  tradition.  While  the  book  was 
circulating  in  manuscript  among  friends,  Dr.  Samuel  da 
Silva  took  up  the  pen  and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Mor- 
tality of  the  Soul  "  in  order  to  expose  Da  Costa's  errors  and 


I29 

bring  him  to  a  better  conviction.  The  latter,  however, 
wandered  still  further  on  the  path  of  error,  and  became  a 
complete  deist.  Tired  of  a  contest  in  which  all  were  against 
him,  and  forsaken  even  by  his  nearest  relations,  he  resolved 
on  a  reconciliation  with  the  synagogue,  at  least  outwardly, 
but  the  contest  was  soon  rekindled,  and  with  more  fierce- 
ness than  ever.  Seven  years  the  philosopher  remained  in 
seclusion.  A  second  reconciliation  followed,  which  was 
effected,  however,  on  the  condition  only  that  the  unbeliever 
should  submit  to  the  public  chastisement  of  receiving  the 
" forty  stripes  save  one."  The  penalty  was  inflicted,  but 
the  mind  of  Da  Costa  could  not  bear  up  under  such  a  de- 
gradation, and  a  few  days  after  this  exposure  he  put  an  end 
to  his  life  with  a  pistol,  leaving  behind  him  his  own  biogra- 
phy in  excellent  Latin,  in  which  he  protests  with  the  great- 
est vehemence  against  the  proceedings  of  the  synagogue. 

Baruch  (Benedict)  d'Espinosa,  more  generally  known  as 
Spinoza,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1632,  of  parents  belong- 
ing to  the  Portuguese  congregation.  He  early  engaged  in 
the  study  of  theology  and  philosophy,  and  was  led  to 
doubt  the  principles  and  the  authority  of  the  religion  to 
which  by  birth  and  education  he  belonged.  He  questioned 
the  public  teachers,  and  disputed  with  them  on  points  of 
religion,  and  finding  no  satisfaction  in  the  answers  he  re- 
ceived, he  candidly  expressed  to  them  his  skeptical  views, 
though  he  did  not  altogether  desert  the  synagogue  and  its 
ceremonies.  Every  effort  to  induce  him  to  give  up  his 
opinions  having  proved  unsuccessful,  he  was  publicly  cen- 
sured and  excommunicated  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities. 
Being  now  looked  upon  as  an  outcast,  a  fanatic  was  soon 
found  who  thought  it  would  be  a  meritorious  act  to  rid  the 
community  of  so  dangerous  a  person  as  Spinoza,  even  at 
the  risk  of  transgressing  the  sixth  commandment;  and  one 
evening,  coming  from  a  public  meeting,  the  assassin  met 


130 

him,  dagger  in  hand,  which  he  endeavored  to  plunge  into 
the  philosopher's  breast;  but  Spinoza  happily  perceived  the 
foul  attempt  and  escaped  unhurt.  Seeing  the  danger  of  his 
position,  he  determined  to  leave  his  native  city  and  went  to 
live  at  Rynburg,  and  finally  settled  at  The  Hague.  He 
voluntarily  gave  up  his  claim  to  any  share  of  the  family 
property,  and  earned  a  scanty  livelihood  by  grinding  glasses 
for  microscopes  and  telescopes,  employing  every  leisure 
hour  to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  the  sciences.  As  his 
talents  and  erudition  became  known,  he  received  an  invita- 
tion from  the  elector  palatine  to  occupy  a  professor's  chair 
in  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  but  Spinoza,  whose  only 
wish  was  literary  retirement,  declined  the  offer.  Baruch 
d'Espinosa  stands  foremost  in  the  rank  of  modern  philoso- 
phers, and  may  be  considered,  if  not  the  founder,  at  least 
the  reviver  in  a  new  form  of  the  natural  theology  called 
Pantheism.  We  cannot  now  dwell  at  length  upon  Spinoza's 
system,  but  will  give  the  essence  of  it,  as  it  appears  from 
his  various  writings.  By  strictly  mathematical  reasoning, 
based  on  a  few  axioms,  he  deduces  the  principles  that 
" there  can  be  no  substance  but  God;  whatever  is,  is  in 
God,  and  nothing  can  be  conceived  without  God."  In 
other  words,  taking  the  ground  that  God  is  everywhere,  in 
everything,  and  pervades  every  particle  of  everything,  he 
concludes  that  God  is  everything,  and  ergo  everything  is 
God.  There  is,  therefore,  but  one  substance  with  its  modi- 
fications and  ramifications,  having  within  itself  the  neces- 
sary causes  of  the  changes  through  which  it  passes ;  and 
this  universal  substance  Spinoza  calls  God.  Spinoza  left 
several  works  in  manuscript  as  well  as  in  print,  the  most 
celebrated  of  which  is  his  "Tractatus  Theologico-Politi- 
cus."  Though  living  in  complete  retirement,  he  maintained 
an  extensive  acquaintance  and  correspondence  with  friends 
and  literary  men,  both  in  his  own  country  and  elsewhere. 


All  that  is  known  of  the  private  and  domestic  character  of 
this  extraordinary  man  bears  the  same  impress  of  calmness, 
moderation,  and  dignity;  and  even  his  enemies  admitted  the 
greatness  of  his  mind  and  the  excellence  of  his  character. 
Spinoza  died  at  the  early  age  of  forty-five,  in  full  persua- 
sion of  the  truth  of  his  system;  and  lest  reports  might  be 
circulated  that  he  had  recanted  some  of  his  opinions,  he 
charged  his  hostess  not  to  allow  any  clergyman  to  approach 
his  death-bed.  A  monument  in  memory  of  the  great  phi- 
losopher has  been  lately  erected  in  the  city  where  he 
labored  and  died. 

Isaac  (formerly  Balthasar)  Orobio  de  Castro  was  the  son 
of  Jewish  parents  who  lived  as  new  Christians  at  Braganza, 
and  afterwards  at  Malaga,  where  Isaac  was  born  in  1616. 
Having  studied  the  scholastic  philosophy,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  university  of  Salamanca; 
and  later  taught  medicine  and  metaphysics  at  Seville  ; 
but  had  the  misfortune  to  be  accused  before  the  inqui- 
sition of  infidelity  and  Judaism.  Through  the  tale-bearing 
of  a  Moorish  slave,  who  reported  that  a  distinction  of  meats 
and  other  tokens  of  Judaism  were  to  be  met  in  the  house, 
Orobio  fell  into  the  hands  of  that  fearful  tribunal.  After 
he  had  endured  three  years  of  imprisonment  and  the  inflic- 
tion of  the  usual  tortures,  the  Inquisition,  not  being  able  to 
produce  a  confession,  nor  finding  any  direct  evidence 
against  him,  declared  him  only  suspected  but  not  convicted 
of  Judaism,  and  he  was  at  length  discharged;  and  as  may 
be  supposed,  seized  the  first  opportunity  for  quitting  the 
Spanish  territories.  He  first  settled  at  Toulouse,  where  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  medicine  and  councillor  to 
Louis  XIV.  and  there  he  conformed  to  the  religion  of  the 
country;  but  wishing  to  enjoy  the  free  exercise  of  his  reli- 
gion, he  left  France,  and  at  the  age  of  forty  removed  to 
Amsterdam,  relinquished  his  Christian  name  Balthasar, 


T32 

and  submitting  to  the  distinguishing  rites  of  Judaism,  took 
that  of  Isaac.  He  continued  to  practice  as  a  physician  in 
that  city  till  the  year  of  his  death,  1686,  and  his  descend- 
ants are  to  this  day  in  the  capital  of  Holland.  Among  his 
numerous  polemical  works  in  defence  of  the  Jewish  religion, 
his  controversy  with  Philip  of  Limborch  was  published  by 
that  learned  remonstrant  under  title  of  "  Friendly  Discus- 
sion with  a  learned  Jew  on  the  truth  of  Christianity." 
•Other  writings  of  Orobio  against  Christianity  remained  to 
our  day  in  manuscript,  and  have  circulated  so  among  the 
Portuguese  Jews. 

The  Jews  of  the  peninsula  continued  to  set  a  high  value 
upon  the  poetry  of  their  ancestors,  and  many  more  names 
might  be  given  of  persons  who  distinguished  themselves  by 
their  poetical  and  other  literary  productions.  Even  the 
synagogue  witnessed  within  its  walls  the  representation  of 
certain  pieces  of  poetry,  much  in  the  same  fashion  as  the 
ancient  mystery-plays  of  Spain  in  the  middle  ages.  Such  a 
piece  of  poetry,  composed  by  Rehuel  Jesurun  (formerly 
Paulo  de  Pina)  was  recited  in  the  synagogue  Bet  Yahacob, 
by  several  of  its  most  learned  and  distinguished  members. 
In  this  poetical  dialogue  the  seven  mountains,  Sinai,  Zion, 
Hor,  Nebo,  Gerizim,  Carmel,  and  Senir  (Sirion),  mutually 
dispute  the  right  of  pre-eminence,  which  is  decided  at  last 
by  king  Jehoshaphat.  Such  entertainments,  however, 
though  not  considered  actually  unlawful,  were  soon  thought 
inconsistent  with  the  sacrednes  of  a  house  of  prayer. 
Among  the  poetical  geniuses  at  Amsterdam  we  find  also  the 
names  of  two  distinguished  women,  Isabella  Henriquez, 
and  Donna  Isabella  Correa;  the  latter  wife  to  the  lieutenant- 
colonel  Don  Nicholas  de  Oliver  y  Fullana,  then  in  the 
Spanish  service,  and  much  esteemed  as  a  cosmographer. 
The  interest  for  literary  attainments,  however,  gradually 
decreased,  and  the  eighteenth  century  witnessed  an  almost 


133 

entire  extinction  of  poetical  genius  among  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  Jews  of  Holland,  nor  could  they  in  other 
branches  of  science  and  lettters  ever  vie  with  their  ancestors. 
Perhaps  the  intermingling  of  prosperity  and  oppression; 
perhaps  also  the  climate  had  exercised  a  happier  influence 
than  the  repose  which  they  afterwards  enjoyed  without  in- 
terruption. 

RE-ESTABLISHMENT  OF  JEWS  IN  ENGLAND. 

In  the  preceding  article  on  the  Jews  in  England,  we 
stated  that  they  were  banished  from  that  country  by  an  edict 
of  Edward  I.  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century ;  and  we 
know  also  that  toward  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth,  the 
Spanish  Jews  were  firmly  and  extensively  established  in 
Holland,  where  they  had  formed  commercial  relation  with 
different  countries.  They  had  long  since  looked  for  an 
opportunity  of  extending  their  traffic  to  England,  but  as  long 
as  the  parliamentary  act  of  their  banishment  was  in  force, 
this  seemed  impossible.  When  Oliver  Cromwell  came  to  hold 
the  reins  of  government  of  Great  Britain,  the  time  seemed  to 
have  arrived  for  the  country  to  reopen  its  ports  to  a  people 
that  had  already  been  favorably  received  on  the  continent, 
both  by  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  powers.  For  this 
purpose  the  Jews  of  Amsterdam  delegated  one  of  their  ablest 
members,  the  celebrated  Menasseh  Ben  Israel,  of  whose 
character  and  talents  we  have  already  spoken.  He  present- 
ed a  petition  to  the  Lord  Protector,  in  which  he  complimented 
him  and  the  nation  on  their  humanity  and  enlightenment, 
and  requested  permission  for  his  people  to  reside  and  enjoy 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  in  England  ;  and  at  the 
same  time  issued  a  pamphlet  to  circulate  among  the  public, 
in  which  he  stated  the  grounds  upon  which  he  based  his 
request,  and  the  financial  advantages  which  would  accrue 
to  the  nation  by  a  consent  to  his  proposition.  Hereupon 


134 

Cromwell  called  together  an  assembly  of  lawyers,  clergymen, 
and  other  citizens  to  consider  the  matter,  but  on  account  of 
the  hesitation  and  the  prolonged  debates  of  the  clergymen 
it  was  left  undecided  ;    yet  from  time  to  time  some  Jews 
entered   quietly   into   the   country   without   meeting   with 
opposition  or   molestation,  until   the  reign  of   Charles  II., 
1666,  when  they  were  lawfully  readmitted  to  dwell  in  Eng- 
land.    It  is  quite  probable  that  this  permission  was  effected 
by  the  circumstance  that   the  negotiations    for   the   king's 
marriage   to    the  infanta  Catharine  of   Portugal  had  been 
carried  on  by  General  Monk,  through  the  intervention  of  a 
Portuguese  Jew.    It  is  an  ascertained  fact  that  the  infanta  was 
accompanied  to  England  by  two  Portuguese  brothers,  one 
of  whom,  Dr.  Antonio  Mendez,  had  been  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Coimbra,  and  at  the   request  of  the  infanta  estab- 
lished himself  in  London,  where,  from  that  time,  both  broth- 
ers openly  professed  the  Jewish  religion.     They  obtained  a 
piece  of  ground   for  burial,  built  a  synagogue,  and  were 
joined  by  several   distinguished   families  from  Spain    and 
Portugal,  but  especially  from  Holland.     Their  number  was 
soon  increased  by  other  Jews  from  Germany  and  more  yet 
from  Poland,  who,  together,  formed  a  new   congregation. 
The  presence  of  the  Jews  in  England  was  frequently  dis- 
cussed in  public,  and  though  no  parliamentary  act  for  their 
legal  readmission  was  issued,  still  no  measures  were  taken 
by  the  government  to  hinder  them.     They  were  allowed  to 
remain  as  strangers,  and  were  obliged  to  pay  a  capitation- 
tax.    Under  James  II., they  obtained  relief  from  this  charge, 
but  it  was  again  imposed  under  William  III.    Hitherto  Jews 
could  not  be  admitted  to  citizenship,  because  they  could 
not  in  truth  take  the  oath  required  on  such  occasion,  which 
prescribed  the  candidate  to  swear  "  upon  the  true  faith  of  a 
Christian."     This  difficulty  was  removed  in  1723  by  an  act 
of  parliament,  which  allowed  the  Jews  to  omit  the  objec- 


135 

tionable  clause,  and  to  be  allowed  henceforth  to  hold  landed 
property.  In  the  American  colonies,  the  Jews  had  long 
since  been  admitted  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  the  Eng- 
lish inhabitants,  and  in  1739,  George  II.  declared  all  those 
who  had  been  established  there  for  seven  years  as  entitled 
to  English  citizenship  on  taking  the  required  oath  with 
the  omission  as  granted.  Thus  the  Jews  steadily  gained 
ground  in  England  ;  still  they  were  far  yet  from  enjoying 
equal  rights  with  their  Christian  neighbors.  In  1753  a  bill 
was  brought  into  Parliament  "granting  to  all  Jews  who  had 
resided  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland  for  the  space  of  three 
years  the  right  of  English  citizenship,  with  the  exception 
of  patronage  and  admission  to  parliament."  Notwithstand- 
ing a  violent  opposition  both  within  and  without  the  House, 
the  bill  passed  by  a  considerable  majority  ;  but  before  it  was 
yet  confirmed  by  the  royal  sanction,  public  feeling  against 
the  measure  was  so  loudly  expressed  that  Parliament,  in  its 
next  session,  found  it  necessary,  for  the  preservation  of  peace 
and  order,  to  repeal  the  act ;  and,  what  is  remarkable,  the 
Jews  themselves,  at  that  time  about  12,000  in  number,  were 
not  anxious  for  the  success  of  the  measure,  and  were  rather 
opposed  to  it,  for  fear'that  such  an  equality  might  be  inju- 
rious to  their  religion;  which  fear  was  perhaps  supported  by 
the  circumstance  of  a  prominent  Jew,  Simpson  Gideon, 
adopting  the  Christian  faith,  and  being  subsequently  chosen 
a  member  of  Parliament.  Still  the  Jews  persevered  and 
became  eminent  in  every  commercial  enterprise.  They 
aided  once  more  in  building  up  the  financial  supremacy  of 
the  country,  and  slowly  won  their  way  to  a  respect  that  was 
at  length  awarded  them.  Strong  was  the  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  churchmen  and  Tories,  but  stronger  still, 
because  supported  by  justice,  was  the  brilliant  defense  made 
in  their  behalf  (1830)  by  Macaulay  and  the  united  force  of 
the  whole  Liberal  Party.  The  friends  of  freedom  and 


136 

humanity  everywhere  assumed  the  defence  of  the  Jews ; 
the  conservative  faction  in  church  and  state  was  everywhere 
their  bitterest  foe.  Ten  times  the  Liberal  party  in  the 
British  House  of  Commons,  by  great  majorities,  carried  a 
bill  for  their  enfranchisement,  and  ten  times  it  was  thrown 
out  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Long  was  the  struggle,  but 
glorious  was  the  victory.  In  1835,  one  °f  tne  leadingmem- 
bers  of  the  synagogue,  Mr.  David  Salomons,  was  elected 
sheriff  of  London,  being  the  first  Jew  that  ever  held  this 
high  office,  and  an  act  was  passed  by  Parliament  enabling 
him  to  serve.  Moses  Montefiore,  Esq.,  was  elected  sheriff 
of  London  in  1837,  and  on  the  pth  of  November  of  that 
year  was  knighted  by  the  queen,  being  the  first  English 
Jew  on  whom  this  honor  was  ever  conferred.  In  1849, 
Baron  Lionel  de  Rothschild  was  elected  to  Parliament  for 
the  city  of  London,  and  in  1857,  alderman  Salomons  was 
returned  for  Greenwich.  Rothschild  was  again  returned  for 
the  capital  in  1852,  and  at  the  two  general  elections  in  1857  ; 
but  neither  of  these  gentlemen  was  able  to  take  his  seat  on 
account  of  the  form  of  the  oath  which  was  still  objection- 
able to  them.  In  July,  1858,  Parliament  passed  an  act, 
which  received  the  royal  assent,  and  which  by  a  kind 
of  compromise  enabled  Jews  to  sit  in  that  legislative 
body;  and  on  the  26th  of  that  month  Baron  Lionel  de 
Rothschild  took  his  seat  as  the  representative  of  the  city  of 
London.  In  1855,  Alderman  Salomons  was  elected  Lord 
Mayor  of  London,  the  first  Jew  ever  chosen  to  that  office, 
and  in  1865  Alderman  Benjamin  Samuel  Phillips  became 
the  second  Jewish  Lord  Mayor.  At  last,  in  1860,  Parliament 
adopted  an  act  permitting  Jewish  members  to  omit  the  words 
"  on  the  faith  of  a  Christian"  from  the  usual  oath,  and  now 
the  election  of  Jews  to  almost  the  highest  offices  of  the  state 
is,  so  to  say,  of  daily  occurrence.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls  in 
England  is  an  officer  of  the  court  of  chancery,  second  only 


137 

to  the  Lord  Chancellor ;  is  appointed  by  the  crown,  and 
holds  his  office  for  life,  with  an  annual  salary  of  ^7,000, 
and  has  the  power  of  hearing  and  determining  cases  the 
same  as  the  Lord  Chancellor.  Sir  George  Jessel  was  ap- 
pointed to  that  office  in  1873,  and,  as  if  England  were  anxious 
to  make  amends  to  the  Jews  for  past  injuries,  Lord  Bea- 
consfield,  born  a  Jew,  though  in  his  infancy  given  to  the 
Church,  now  virtually  rules  the  country  as  the  head  of  that 
conservative  party  which  was  the  last  to  persecute  his  race. 

THE  JEWS  IN  FRANCE  AND  ITALY  AFTER  THE  MIDDLE 

AGES. 

Shortly  after  the  expulsion  from  the  Spanish  peninsula, 
many  Jewish  emigrants  sought  a  refuge  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  Pyrenees;  and  we  never  find  that  their  tranquillity 
was  in  any  way  disturbed  by  the  French  kings.  Half  a 
century  later,  these  emigrants  obtained  from  King  Henry 
II.  letters  patent  securing  to  them,  under  the  denomination 
of  Portuguese,  their  entire  liberty  and  many  desirable  rights 
and  privileges.  These  letters  were  registered  by  Parlia- 
ment, in  the  year  1550.  Subsequent  kings  confirmed  these 
rights,  and  at  all  times  protected  their  Jewish  subjects  from 
any  violence  on  account  of  their  religion.  When  the  edict 
of  Nantes  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  (1685),  this  legal 
toleration  seemed  for  a  moment  in  danger,  but  no  evil  con- 
sequences ensued.  An  effort  made  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV.,  to  cut  short  their  privileges,  likewise  fell  to  the 
ground.  In  consequence  of  the  annexation  of  Alsace  to 
France  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  that 
kingdom  contained  three  or  four  different  classes  of  Jews 
within  its  territory  :  those  who  belonged  originally  to 
France,  those  of  Alsace,  who  were  German,  the  Italian 
Jews  of  Avignon,  and  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews 
who  were  settled  chiefly  at  Bayonne  and  Bordeaux.  The 


Spanish  exiles  who  established  themselves  in  France  were, 
generally  speaking,  more  distinguished  for  probity  and  by 
their  great  wealth  than,  as  elsewhere,  for  their  learned 
men  and  literary  productions;  yet  some  names  of  note  have 
already  been  given,  and  to  these  we  may  add  that  of  Jacob 
Rodriguez  Pereira,  a  native  of  Spanish  Estremadura,  to 
whom  belongs  the  honor  of  having  anticipated  the  cele- 
brated Abbe  de  1'Espee  in  his  plans  for  instructing  and 
communicating  with  the  deaf  and  dumb.  As  a  recom- 
pense, Louis  XV.  bestowed  on  him  a  pension  of  500  francs 
in  1751,  and  appointed  him  his  librarian,  and  later  he  was 
rewarded  by  a  patent  for  the  office  of  royal  interpreter. 
We  may  also  mention  (though  not  by  way  of  eminence), 
the  famous  banker,  Samuel  Bernard,  the  Rothschild  of  his 
time,  who  joined  the  Catholic  Church.  French  memoirs 
of  his  time  speak  of  the  great  financial  services  he  ren- 
dered to  Louis  XV.,  and  how  the  haughty  and  aged 
monarch  might  be  seen  condescending  to  conduct  the 
Jewish  banker  over  his  palace,  and  showing  him  the  curiosi- 
ties of  the  royal  mansion,  at  Marly.  On  the  annexation  of 
Alsace,  Louis  XIV.  extended  the  privileges  of  free  com- 
merce, that  had  been  granted  to  the  Jews  in  the  southern 
provinces,  also  to  those  of  Metz,  for  which  they  paid  a 
tax  of  forty  francs  annually  for  each  family,  afterwards 
compounded  for  by  a  payment  of  2,000  francs  per  annum. 
Under  Louis  XVI.  (1784),  this  tax  was  abolished,  and  in 
1788,  a  commission  was  appointed,  with  the  wise  and  good 
Malesherbes  at  its  head,  to  devise  means  for  remodelling, 
on  principles  of  justice,  all  laws  relating  to  the  Jews.  But 
the  revolution  burst  upon  France  before  the  measures 
could  be  drafted,  and  the  tribunals  of  the  republic  were 
more  rapid  in  their  movements  than  the  slow  justice  of  the 
sovereign.  In  1 790,  the  Jews,  who  had  watched  their  oppor- 
tunity, sent  in  petitions  from  various  quarters,  claiming 


equal  rights  as  citizens.  The  measure  was  not  passed 
without  considerable  discussion,  but  Mirabeau  and  Rabaut 
St.  Etienne  ably  pleaded  their  cause,  and,  as  if  by  magical 
influence,  eighty  thousand  inhabitants  of  France,  hitherto 
dependent  on  the  will  and  the  whims  of  their  rulers,  were 
recognized  as  free  citizens  of  the  great  republic.  It  is 
indeed  to  the  French  revolution,  more  than  to  any  other 
cause,  that  the  European  Jews  owe  their  final  and  entire 
emancipation. 

When  Napoleon  ascended  the  throne,  he  not  only  con- 
firmed the  position  of  the  Jews   as  being  on  an  equality 
with   their  fellow-citizens,    but   desired    that    the    Jewish 
people  should  speak  for  themselves,  and  declare  authenti- 
cally, upon  the  authority  of  their  own  law,  in  what  relation 
they  stood  to  their  fellow-men  of  another  creed;  what  were 
their  obligations  towards  non-Israelites  ;  and  whether  the 
laws  of  their  religion  required  from  them   any  duties  con- 
trary to  the  laws  of   the  land   they   inhabited.     For   this 
purpose   an    edict   was   issued  (soth    May,   1806),  for  the 
convocation  of  deputies  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  to 
assemble   at    Paris  and   debate    and   decide   upon  certain 
questions  that  should  be  put  to  them.     One  hundred  and 
twelve  delegates  met  as  directed,  on  the   26th  of  July  fol- 
lowing, and  twelve  questions  were  propounded   to  them: 
ist,    Whether,    according    to    Jewish    law,  polygamy  was 
allowed?  2d,  Could  divorces  be  established,  independent 
of  the  state  laws  ?  3d,  Can  Jews  intermarry  with  Christians  ? 
4th,  5th,  and  6th,  Regarding  the  relations  of  Jews  to  other 
citizens  and  to  their  country,    yth,  8th,  and  9th,  Concern- 
ing the  appointment  and  jurisdiction  of  the  rabbis.     loth, 
Are  there  any  professions  which  the  Jews  are  not  allowed 
to  follow?  -  nth  and  i2th,  Concerning  the  laws  on  usury 
between   Jews  among  themselves,  and  between   them  and 
others.     The   assembly  of  deputies,  presided  over  by   M. 


140 

Abraham  Furtado,  entered  upon  the  debates  and  sent  in 
their  answers,  which  were  entirely  approved  of  by  the 
emperor ;  and  in  order  to  give  full  authenticity  to  the 
decisions  rendered,  the  emperor  ordered  that  a  committee 
of  71  members,  of  whom  46  were  clergymen  and  25 
laymen,  should  be  appointed,  and  to  which  committee 
the  appellation  of  Great  Sanhedrin  was  given,  that  they 
might  ratify,  in  conformity  with  ancient  Jewish  usages, 
that  which  had  been  decided  by  the  general  assembly. 
The  Sanhedrin,  of  course,  met  and  ratified;  and  the  deci- 
sions were  received  with  joy  and  acclamation  ;  but  in 
honest  truth  it  must  be  confessed  that  this  Sanhedrin  had 
no  authority  as  of  old  to  legislate  for  the  whole  nation, 
since  it  represented  only  a  small  portion  of  the  Jewish 
body;  and  further,  that  the  answers  given  were  not  without 
some  ambiguity,  not  without  some  evasion;  and  it  is  evident 
that  both  the  general  assembly  and  the  so-called  Sanhedrin, 
in  framing  their  decisions,  kept  steadily  in  view  the  great 
and  good  purpose  of  firmly  establishing  the  emancipation 
of  their  people,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  a  little  honesty. 
The  excellent  result,  however,  which  followed  these  pro- 
ceedings can  hardly  be  over-estimated,  as  not  only  they 
placed  the  independence  of  the  French  Jews  on  a  firm 
basis,  but  also  served  as  an  example  and  an  impetus  to 
others.  It  aroused  the  people  to  a  higher  sense  of  self- 
esteem,  it  gradually  cured  them  from  that  detestable  prac- 
tice of  usury,  they  applied  themselves  more  and  more  to 
labor,  to  agriculture,  to  the  arts  and  sciences  ;  though  a 
special  edict  against  usury,  for  those  of  the  Rhine  provinces, 
was  still  deemed  necessary  (iyth  March,  1808).  Statistical 
returns  of  the  same  year  showed  that  of  80,000  Jews  under 
French  dominion  there  were  1,232  landed  proprietors,  not 
including  the  owners  of  houses,  797  military,  among 
whom  some  officers,  2,360  artisans,  and  280  manufacturers. 


The  extension  of  the  French  dominions,  and  the  annexa- 
tion of  tributary  kingdoms  were  highly  beneficial  to  the 
Jews.  In  Italy,  in  Holland,  in  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia, 
the  old  barbarous  restrictions  fell  away,  and  the  Jew 
became  a  citizen,  with  all  the  rights  and  duties  of  the 
order. 

The  laws  of  France  relating  to  the  Jews  have  remained 
unaltered,  with  the  exception  of  this  improvement,  that  the 
law  of  the  restoration  (yth  Aug.,  1830),  which  enacted  that 
ministers  of  the  Gospel  alone  should  be  salaried  by  the 
state,  was  modified  at  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  so 
that  Jewish  ministers  should  thenceforth  also  receive  a  sti- 
pend from  the  state.  Minister  Merilhou,  in  proposing  the 
amendment,  said,  "The  Jews  have,  for  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  in  all  public  positions  filled  by  them,  whether 
under  our  glorious  banners  or  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  or 
in  the  ordinary  walks  of  life,  most  nobly  refuted  the  calum- 
nies which  their  oppressors  had  raised  against  them." 
Though  the  political  aspects  of  France  have  changed  since 
that  time,  yet  neither  under  the  empire  of  Napoleon  III. 
nor  under  the  present  republic  has  the  relation  of  the  Jews 
towards  their  country  suffered  any  change,  while  their 
internal  condition  has  continued  to  improve  with  the  general 
progress  of  the  age. 

Not  so  favorable  an  account  can  be  given  of  Italy  during 
the  first  three  centuries  after  the  reformation.  It  is  true 
that,  in  the  Papal  States,  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews  were 
never  carried  to  such  excesses  as  they  were  in  other  parts 
of  Europe,  and  that  some  of  the  popes  granted  them  pro- 
tection and  certain  privileges,  but  not  till  within  the  last 
few  years  can  it  be  said  that  the  Jews  were  placed  on  an 
equality  with  their  fellow-men  of  the  other  creed.  As  late 
as  1823,  the  ordinance  was  renewed  that  the  Jews  must  live 
apart  in  a  ghetto,  and  every  Sabbath  three  hundred  of  them 


142 

were  required  to  attend  a  conversion  sermon  preached  for 
them.  Leo  XII.,  in  1827,  was  very  severe  towards  his  Jew- 
ish subjects,  and  in  1829,  there  were  brooding  murmurs  of 
an  expulsion  from  the  ecclesiastical  states ;  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  effected.  The  French  revolution  of  1792 
brought  some  relief  also  to  the  Jews  of  Italy,  but  after  the 
restoration  they  again  lost  ground,  and  as  formerly,  so 
again,  four  elders  of  the  synagogue  were  obliged  every  year 
humbly  to  supplicate  the  pope  for  permission  to  reside  in 
Rome.  Pius  IX.  abolished  this  custom,  and  further  showed 
some  liberality  to  the  Jews  by  allowing  them  the  free  use  of 
the  city  ;  and  on  the  evening  of  the  i7th  of  April,  1849,  the 
ghetto  was  solemnly  opened,  as  if  to  proclaim  that  hence- 
forth the  wall  of  separation  between  the  Jewish  quarter  and 
the  rest  of  the  city  was  thrown  down.  Still,  notwithstanding 
these  indulgences,  the  hand  of  the  church  lay  heavily  upon 
the  Jews.  Though  the  inquisition  had  been  abolished  in 
Italy  by  a  decree  of  Napoleon  in  1808,  the  spirit  of  it  was 
by  no  means  crushed  even  so  late  as  1858,  when  the  papal 
church  was  permitted  to  exercise  its  last  act  of  bigotry 
and  cruel  oppression  towards  a  certain  family  under  its 
tyrannical  authority.  Mr.  Mortara,  an  humble  but  re- 
spectable manufacturer  of  Bologna,  Italy,  was  the  happy 
father  of  eight  children.  One  evening,  his  house  was  visited 
by  several  emissaries  of  the  archbishop  who  claimed  and 
forcibly  carried  away  one  of  the  children,  named  Edgar,  a 
boy  about  seven  years  old,  on  the  plea  that  it  belonged  to 
the  church,  and  could  therefore  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
under  the  guardianship  of  its  Jewish  parents.  It  appeared 
that  a  servant  of  the  family  had  made  a  confession  that, 
some  time  ago,  she  had  baptized  the  child  when  it  was  ill  of 
a  dangerous  disease.  When  the  mother  saw  her  dear  boy 
torn  from  her  arms,  she  fell  fainting  upon  the  floor,  the 
father  remonstrated,  supplicated,  the  neighborhood  was 


143 

alarmed  by  the  cries  of  the  children,  but  the  heartless 
officials  were  unrelenting  :  the  child  was  placed  in  a  carriage 
and  hurried  off  to  Rome.  The  affected  parents  followed 
him,  but  were  not  even  allowed  to  see  their  child  again. 
The  archbishop  and  Cardinal  Antonelli,  the  pope  himself 
were  appealed  to  ;  the  most  tender  pleadings  of  humanity, 
of  outraged  parental  feelings  were  employed,  but  they  found 
no  entrance  in  the  cold  hearts  of  these  ecclesiastics.  The 
story  of  the  abduction  of  Edgar  Mortara  spread  all  over  the 
world  and  created  quite  a  furore  ;  indignation  meetings  were 
held,  and  the  liberal  press  of  France,  England,  Germany, 
and  America,  even  calm  and  enlightened  Catholics  de- 
nounced the  act ;  but  the  pope  refused  to  give  up  the  child, 
even  at  the  solicitations  of  foreign  courts  and  powerful 
diplomatic  influence.  Edgar  Mortara  was  brought  up  in  a 
convent,  forgot  his  parents,  and,  ii  is  said,  has  become  a 
priest.  With  the  fall  of  the  papal  throne  (1870),  God  be 
thanked,  and  the  liberation  of  Italy  under  Victor  Emanuel, 
the  Jewish  inhabitants  also  began  to  share  the  blessings  of 
liberty.  Quite  a  number  of  them  now  sit  in  Parliament, 
some  occupy  professors'  chairs  at  the  principal  universities, 
and  many  bear  titles  of  nobility  ;  while  the  number  of  those 
who  are  prominent  at  the  bar,  in  the  pulpit,  as  journalists, 
and  in  the  learned  professions  generally,  as  well  as  those 
who  cultivate  the  liberal  arts,  is  quite  considerable.  As  a 
counterpoise  to  the  affecting  Mortara  story  we  have  just 
related,  we  take  the  following  from  the  "Archives  Israel- 
ites," i5th  of  September,  1871.  On  the  i4th  of  June,  a 
noisy  crowd  assembled  in  that  quarter  of  the  city  of  Rome 
called  Moriti,  in  front  of  a  convent  appropriated  as  a  refuge 
for  neophytes.  The  entrance  was  guarded  by  a  number  of 
soldiers  and  policemen,  and  the  doors  having  been  forced 
open  by  order  of  the  city  authorities,  three  nuns  came  forth 
who  entered  a  close  carriage,  and  drove  away  under  a  strong 


144 

escort    of   police.     The    fact    was    this.     A    Jewish    girl, 
daughter  of  Samuel  Ascarelli,  of  Nettuno,  had  been  enam- 
ored of  a  young  Christian,  and  in  order  to  remove  every 
obstacle  to  her  marriage  on  the  part  of  her  father,  resolved 
to  become  Catholic,,  and  was  aided  by  the  clergy  to  go  to 
Rome   and  reach  the  convent  above  named.     It  was  not 
until  after  several  weeks  and  by  dint  of  diligent  searching 
that  the  father  discovered  the  whereabouts  of  his  daughter; 
but  his  request  to  see  and  communicate  with  her  was  posi- 
tively refused,  and  he  was  told  that  he  could  not  possibly 
see  her  until  after  she  should  have  received  baptism.     It 
proved,  however,  that  some  months  ago  the  girl  had  already 
been   baptized   by  Vice-cardinal    Patrizi   at    St.    John    de 
Latran,  since  which  time  she  had  been  kept  at  the  convent. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  the  sisters,  marriage  was  out  of 
the   question,   and  Enrichetta  Ascarelli  would  have  been 
made   to  take  the  veil,  were   it  not,  fortunately,  that  the 
Italian  laws  of  2oth  of  September  opposed  such  transac- 
tions.    The  father  now  applied  to  the  government,  request- 
ing that  his  daughter  be  restored  to  him,  which  request  was 
immediately  granted.     Still  the  clerical  authorities  refused 
to  recognize  the  decision   of  the  court,  and   it  was  found 
necessary  to  resort  to  forcible  means.     Not  less  than  seven 
doors  had  to  be  broken  before  the  young  lady  was  found. 
She  was  then  conducted  to  the  mayor's  office,  where  her 
father   awaited  her,  and   her   opinion   on  the  matter  was 
asked.     Filial  affection  was  stronger  than  the  pious  exhor- 
tations of  the  nuns,  and  Enrichetta  laid  off  her  monastic 
habit  and  returned  home  with  her  father. 

So  strong  has  become  the  spirit  of  toleration,  of  freedom 
of  conscience,  and  of  universal  emancipation  in  the  present 
century,  that  even  Spain  and  Portugal  had  to  yield  to  its 
influence  ;  and  though  the  number  of  Jews  now  inhabiting 
these  countries  is  exceedingly  limited,  the  laws  regulating 


MS 

their  condition  and  the  general  sentiment  towards  them 
have  materially  changed.  A  royal  decree  of  i3th  Novem- 
ber, 1831,  granted  permission  to  English  Protestants  to 
inter  their  dead  in  a  ground  set  apart  for  the  purpose;  and 
the  29th  of  August,  1855,  a  law  was  established  in  Spain  by 
which  permission  was  granted  to  all  non-Catholics  to  have 
their  own  cemeteries.  In  1865,  some  French  Jews  residing 
in  Spain  thought  it  necessary  to  apply  to  the  minister  of  the 
interior  for  a  similar  permission,  and  were  informed  there 
was  no  obstacle  to  their  laying  out  a  special  burying  ground, 
provided  that  there  should  be  no  chapel  on  it  or  connected 
with  it,  nor  any  public  or  private  religious  services  held  on 
the  occasion.  In  1869,  the  provisional  government  under 
General  Prim  virtually  abrogated  the  decree  of  banishment 
of  1492,  and  a  petition  of  one  hundred  and  forty  Jews  of 
Amsterdam,  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  descent,  asking  that 
this  decree  might  be  entirely  repealed  and  the  abolition  of 
it  made  public,  was  followed  by  an  eloquent  address  by  one 
of  the  deputies,  E.  Castelar  (i2th  April,  1869),  which  had 
the  desired  effect.  In  the  same  year,  perfect  freedom  of 
religious  exercises  throughout  the  dominions  of  Spain  was 
proclaimed,  but  our  people  have  thus  far  scarcely  availed 
themselves  of  this  right.  We  learn,  however,  that  in  Lis- 
bon, a  Jewish  community  of  about  fifty  or  sixty  families, 
some  three  hundred  or  four  hundred  souls,  hold  divine 
service  in  a  house  rented  for  the  purpose.  The  grand  cross 
of  the  order  of  Isabella  the  Catholic  was,  in  1872,  presented 
to  Mr.  D.  Weisweiler,  a  Jewish  banker  connected  with  the 
house  of  Rothschild  ;  and  in  Portugal  an  English  Jewish 
baronet  possesses  a  noble  estate,  and  bears  the  title  attached 
to  it.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  that  the  Spanish  of  the  pres- 
ent century  feel  ashamed  of  the  barbarity  of  their  ancestors, 
and  are  anxious  that  it  be  effaced  from  man's  memory  ;  for 
in  the  same  periodical  from  which  we  have  just  quoted  we 
7 


146 

find  the  following  anecdote.  A  French  lawyer,  M.  Jules 
Lan,  writes  that,  being  on  a  visit  in  Madrid,  he  was  informed 
that  the  building  formerly  occupied  as  the  Holy  Office  of 
the  inquisition  had  been  turned  into  a  hotel,  and  its  dun- 
geons into  wine-cellars.  M.  Lan  had  the  curiosity  to  visit 
the  place,  and  inquiring  of  the  proprietor  as  to  the  truth  of 
the  fact,  was  answered  that  this  was  merely  a  trick  which 
his  French  competitors  played  on  him,  to  injure  the  repu- 
tation of  his  house ;  that  there  never  had  been  any  inquisi- 
tion in  Spain ;  that  this  was  but  one  of  those  fanciful  tales 
invented  to  frighten  children. 

JEWS  IN  THE  EAST.     THE  DAMASCUS  BLOOD-ACCUSATION. 

It  is  an  admitted  fact  that  the  progress  of  civilization 
has  been  ever  tending  westward,  consequently  the  eastern 
countries,  generally,  are  to  this  day  much  enveloped  in 
darkness,  and  our  brethren  in  that  part  of  the  world,  as 
everywhere  else,  sharing  the  influence  of  the  country  they 
inhabit,  have  made  but  little  advance.  The  Jews  of 
Palestine,  notwithstanding  the  strong  effort  made  in  their 
behalf  by  their  brethren  in  the  west,  are  almost  in  the 
same  condition  as  they  were  a  thousand  years  ago.  The 
very  venerable  and  celebrated  philanthropist  Sir  Moses 
Montefiore,  as  president  of  the  Board  of  Deputies  of  British 
Jews,  and  from  the  particular  interest  he  takes  in  the  fate 
of  the  Jews  of  Palestine,  has  sacrificed  a  great  deal  of  time, 
personal  efforts,  and  large  sums  of  money  for  their  benefit ; 
the  Board  of  Delegates  of  American  Israelites  (established 
1859)  has  ever  shown  its  readiness  to  promote  the  well-be- 
ing of  the  wretched  Jews  of  the  Holy  Land;  the  "Alliance 
Israelite  Universelle"  (established  in  Paris  in  1860)  has 
taken  a  deep  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  Palestinians,  and 
established  schools,  agricultural  societies,  and  other  useful 
institutions  among  them  ;  but  the  results  produced  have  been 


147 

by  no  means  adequate  to  the  vast  amount  of  labor,  talent, 
and  treasure  employed.  These  people  have  yet  to  learn  the 
lessons  of  independence,  civilization,  and  the  dignity  of 
manhood. 

There  is  so  much  sameness  in  the  general  condition  of 
our  brethren  in  Asia  and  Africa  that  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  enter  into  details  as  to  their  circumstances  in  any  partic- 
ular country.  Ignorance  and  superstition  prevail  to  a  great 
extent,  and  the  Jews  are  often  suffering  from  the  prejudices 
entertained  against  their  race.  Within  the  last  few  years 
even  (in  1872)  we  have  had  in  Smyrna  a  repetition  of  the 
absurd  rumor  that  Jews  need  human  blood  for  their  Pass- 
over cakes,  and  a  Catholic  journal  of  Tunis  industriously 
circulated  and  confirmed  the  falsehood.  A  similar  accusa- 
tion made  in  the  capital  of  Syria  in  the  year  1840  caused 
such  a  universal  sensation,  and  drew  forth  the  eloquence  and 
activity  of  so  many  prominent  men,  non-Israelites  as  well  as 
Jews,  that  we  deem  it  necessary  to  reproduce  the  particulars 
of  the  case.  A  certain  monk,  named  Father  Thomas,  who 
practised  medicine  at  Damascus,  had  suddenly  disappeared. 
On  the  5th  of  February  his  body  was  found,  and  it  was  soon 
suspected  that  the  Jews  had  murdered  him.  A  Jewish 
barber  was  imprisoned,  closely  questioned,  and  put  to  the 
torture.  At  last  they  drew  from  him  a  confession  that  some 
of  his  people  had  tempted  him  by  the  offer  of  a  sum  of  money 
to  assassinate  Father  Thomas.  This  statement,  extorted 
from  a  man  on  the  rack  and  supported  by  no  evidence 
whatever,  was  considered  enough  to  warrant  the  arrest  of 
the  most  prominent  Jews  of  the  community.  Many  of  them, 
foremost  the  rabbis,  were  put  to  the  torture,  the  aged  and 
weak  sank  under  the  horrible  torments  inflicted  on  them  ; 
while  others  allowed  a  false  confession  to  be  drawn  from 
them;  and  some  in  despair  embraced  Islamism,  though 
most  of  them  persisted  with  constancy  in  declaring  their  in- 


148 

nocence.     The  furious  populace,  taking  advantage  of  the 
occasion,  pillaged  the  synagogues,  robbed  the  people  in 
their  houses,  and  were  not  hindered  but  abetted  by  the 
police.     The  French  consul,  Count  Menton,  who  conducted 
the  search  of  the  case,  was  cruel  enough  to  imprison  even 
the  school-children  and  put  them  in  chains.     The  rumors 
of  the  accusation  spread  to  Rhodes  and  to  other  places,  and 
were  made  the  pretexts  for  persecution  even  there.     The 
afflicted  Jews  communicated  with  their  brethren  in  Europe 
to  enlist  their  sympathy,  and  immediately  found  a  response, 
not  only  in  every  Jewish  heart,  but  the  European  powers 
interested   themselves   in   their   behalf.      England   distin- 
guished itself  for  its  zeal  in  demanding  an  impartial  exam- 
ination  of  facts  to  show  the  innocence  of  the  ill-treated 
Jews.     The  emperor  of  Russia  and  the  government  of  the 
United  States  acted  in  concert  with  Great  Britain,  with  the 
object  that  henceforth  such  abuses  and  sucb  horrors  should 
not  be  repeated.     The  interest  and  co-operation  of  all  reli- 
gious and  political  parties  in  England  was  general,  and  on 
the  i5th  of  June  a  large  meeting  was  held  in  the  synagogue 
to  devise  means  for  the  relief  of  the  oppressed.     This  meet- 
ing had  decisive  results.      Sir  Moses  Montefiore,   accom- 
panied by  several  learned  men,  and  furnished  by  his  gov- 
ernment with  the  necessary  credentials,  set  out  on  his  mis- 
sion to  Syria,  and  passing  through   France,  was  joined  by 
the  celebrated  advocate,  now  senator,  Adolph  Cremieux. 
Wherever  they  came  the  benevolent  missionaries  were  re- 
ceived with  enthusiasm,  and  all  over  the  world  public  pray- 
ers were  offered  for  their  success.     On  the  4th  of  August, 
they  landed  at  Alexandria  and  soon  obtained  an  audience. 
Supported  by  the  representatives  of  all  the  European  pow- 
ers— excepting  France,  whose  government  preferred  uphold- 
ing the  inexcusable  conduct  of  its  consul — they  obtained  a 
firman  from  the  pasha  ordering  the  release  of  nine  persons 


149 

who  were  yet  in  prison  at  Damascus.  M.  S.  Munk,  the  in- 
terpreter of  the  company,  having  observed  that  the  word 
"  pardon  "  had  been  used  in  the  deed,  and  fearing  that,  if 
allowed  to  pass,  the  question  of  their  guilt  might  be  consid- 
ered as  undecided,  persevered  in  his  efforts  until  he  had  it 
altered.  On  the  i6th  of  September,  1840,  the  liberated 
Jews  were  conducted  in  procession  to  the  synagogue,  where 
they  wished  to  render  thanks  to  God  before  returning  home. 
Sir  Moses  and  Senator  Cremieux  took  advantage  of  the  oc- 
casion to  establish  schools  at  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  to  pro- 
vide for  a  Jewish  hospital,  and  to  procure  many  privileges 
for  their  oppressed  brethren.  Our  noble  heroes,  Sir  Moses, 
now  in  his  ninety-seventh  year,  and  M.  Ciemieux,  in  his 
eighty-fourth  year,  are  still  the  ornaments  of  their  respec- 
tive communities  and  the  pride  of  the  Jewish  people.  An 
account  of  their  incessant  labors  for  the  benefit  of  the  Jews 
in  the  East  would  fill  a  volume.  God  bless  them ! 

The  condition  of  the  Jews  in  Persia  has  been  hitherto 
very  deplorable,  and  perhaps  the  worst  feature  of  the  case 
is  with  them,  as  with  the  Eastern  Jews  generally,  that,  in 
consequence  of  their  prejudices  and  want  of  enlighten- 
ment, they  often  refuse  to  accept  such  assistance  as  the 
European  associatiors  think  most  beneficial  and  most  suit- 
able to  them ;  they  deem  acceptable  scarcely  anything  but 
gifts  of  charity  for  immediate  relief.  They  frequently 
suffer,  like  the  rest  of  the  population,  from  famine,  some- 
times from  earthquakes,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  from  the 
crushing  oppression  of  their  petty  rulers.  On  the  late  occa- 
sion of  the  Shah's  visit  to  Europe  (1875),  various  petitions 
were  offered  to  his  majesty  requesting  him  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  his  Jewish  subjects  ;  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish Jewish  delegations  were  graciously  received  by  the 
emperor,  and  the  promise  obtained  that  measures  would  be 
employed  for  improving  the  condition  of  the  Persian  Jews. 


Similar  favors  were  sought,  and  similar  promises  obtained 
from  the  Sultan,  in  1840,  by  Sir  Moses  Montefiore  and  by 
M.  Albert  Cohn  from  the  same  monarch  after  the  Crimean 
war.  But  the  greatest  victory  these  indefatigable  gentlemen 
and  the  associations  they  represent  have  lately  achieved  is, 
the  resolutions  passed  by  the  Berlin  congress  (1878)  in 
which  body  it  was  unanimously  decided  that  perfect  liberty 
of  religion,  and  entire  equality  of  all  persons  before  the  law, 
should  be  established  in  the  Danubian  Principalities ;  and 
the  venerable  octagenarian  Cremieux,  in  addressing  the 
last  meeting  of  the  "Alliance,"  in  deep  emotion  and  un- 
speakable joy,  announced  as  the  result  of  so  many  years' 
labor  that  "now,  all  over  the  East,  liberty  of  religion 
for  the  Jews,  civil  and  political  equality  for  the  Jews,  is  es- 
tablished ;  the  Jews  of  the  Orient  are  now  citizens  in  the 
respective  countries  of  their  birth." 

JEWS  IN  GERMANY,  AUSTRIA,  AND  THE  SCLAVONIAN 
COUNTRIES  IN  THE  LATTER  AGES. 

The  emancipation  of  the  Jews  in  Germany  has  been  very 
slow  and  tardy.  What  was  established  in  France,  as  it 
were  in  a  moment,  was  not  accomplished  in  Germany  except 
in  a  long  series  of  years  and  through  many  hard  struggles. 
The  example  set  by  Napoleon  in  granting  the  full  right  of 
citizenship  to  all  Jews  under  his  dominion  was  not  without 
effect  upon  the  German  states,  but  the  Jewish  inhabitants 
of  Germany,  in  consequence  of  the  deep  degradation  to 
which  they  had  been  so  long  subjected,  were  not  quite  pre- 
pared for,  nor  willing  to  accept  an  entire  emancipation.  The 
emperor  Joseph  II.  was  the  first  who  evinced  much  enlight- 
ened liberality  in  reducing  the  power  of  the  Church,  in 
granting  full  toleration  to  the  Protestants,  and  extending 
the  privileges  of  his  Jewish  subjects.  In  1782,  he  issued  an 
edict  which  abolished  all  the  old  obnoxious  regulations. 


The  Jews  were  allowed  to  fix  their  residence  in  any  town 
they  pleased;  no  more  distinctive  marks  on  the  dress;  no 
exclusion  from  festivals  and  public  walks ;  no  confinement 
to  any  particular  part  of  the  town ;  the  military  profession 
as  well  as  those  of  the  law  and  medicine  thrown  open  to 
them;  the  right  of  wearing  a  sword,  and  bearing  titles  of 
nobility  was  granted,  though  without  the  power  of  holding 
landed  property;  all  trades  were  permitted,  though  without 
admission  to  the  guilds;  and  protection  to  their  children 
against  the  proselytism  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  On  their 
side  the  Jews  were  required  to  adopt  surnames,  or  family 
names  ;  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  and  make  use  of  the 
German  langua'ge  instead  of  the  so-called  Jiidisch  Deutsch  j 
and  to  send  their  children  to  the  public  institutions  for  in- 
struction, whether  Christian  or  Jewish.  This  edict,  which 
was  received  with  great  applause  by  the  Jews  of  Germany 
and  Austria,  formed  quite  a  turning-point  in  their  history; 
still  they,  for  whose  benefit  the  edict  was  intended,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  long  habituated  degradation,  were  not 
yet  ripe  fully  to  enjoy  these  improvements.  What  the 
emperor  Joseph  II.  undertook  in  his  Austrian  dominions, 
was  carried  out  with  far  more  beneficial  results  in  Prussia 
by  king  Frederic  William  II.,  in  1787.  Under  the  reign  of 
his  predecessor,  Frederic  the  Great,  some  very  curious  and 
absurd  enactments  regarding  the  Jews  were  in  vogue.  As 
for  instance,  when  the  king  in  hunting  had  taken  more  wild 
boars  than  could  be  consumed  in  his  own  household,  the 
Jews  were  obliged  to  purchase  the  superabundance  of  the 
royal  venison  at  fixed  prices ;  and  as  they  could  not  use  this 
forbidden  meat,  they  gave  it  to  be  consumed  at  the  hospi- 
tals. The  law  allowed  only  a  limited  number  of  Jews  in 
the  kingdom  and  these  were  under  the  king's  protection, 
as  it  was  called.  This  protection  descended  to  one  son  ; 
for  the  second  an  additional  tax  was  demanded.  This  tax 


'52 

consisted  in  the  obligation  of  the  father  to  purchase  at  one 
of  the  royal  porcelain  factories  300  thalers'  worth  of  porce- 
lain, and  that  for  foreign  exportation.  Frederic  William 
abolished  these  and  similar  arbitrary  institutions,  and  by  an 
edict  of  March  nth,  1812,  granted  to  the  Jews  the  right  of 
Prussian  citizens,  though  not  without  some  conditions  and 
restrictions.  The  French  revolution,  and  the  influence  of 
the  French  imperial  government,  considerably  aided  the 
cause  of  the  Jews  throughout  a  great  part  of  Germany. 
Those  inhabiting  the  cities  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Rhine  had  now  been  fully  emancipated  ;  the  example  re- 
flected on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  the  spirit  of  it 
penetrated  into  the  interior  and  to  the  opposite  boundary 
of  Germany.  Especially  in  Westphalia,  in  its  capital  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Maine,  were  the  improvements  noticeable.  It 
was  there  that  the  worthy  philanthropist  Israel  Jacobson, 
formerly  chamberlain  to  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  unceasing  efforts  and  very  large  pecuniary 
contributions  for  the  elevation  of  his  co-religionists.  The 
abolition  of  a  personal  toll  imposed  on  the  Jews  the  same 
as  on  cattle  ;  the  prohibition  of  a  drama  in  which  the  Jews 
were  loaded  with  insult  and  ridicule,  and  the  endowment  of 
free  schools,  were  some  of  the  fruits  of  his  benevolent 
activity.  By  a  decree  of  27th  January,  1808,  Jerome  Napo- 
leon declared  the  Jews  of  Westphalia  to  be  free  citizens. 
Besides  many  of  the  smaller  states,  the  grand-duke  of 
Baden  in  1809,  the  duke  of  Mecklenburgh-Schwerin  in  1812, 
the  king  of  Bavaria  in  1813,  issued  ordinances  admitting  the 
Jews  to  civil  rights.  The  act  for  the  federative  constitution 
of  Germany,  passed  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  in  1815, 
pledges  the  diet  to  turn  its  attention  to  the  amelioration  of 
the  civil  state  of  the  Jews  throughout  the  empire. 

That  the  newly  acquired  rights  of  the  Jews  met  with 
strong  opposition  on  the  part  of  a  certain  portion  of  the 


'53 

population   may  be   well    imagined.     Some    of   the   ablest 
writers  employed  their  pens  for  the  purpose  of  counteract- 
ing the  emancipation  acts.     Professor  Ruhs  openly  declared 
his  opinion  that  the  admission  of  the  Jews  to  civil  rights 
would  be  pernicious,  in  consideration  of  their  existence  as 
a  nation  ;  of  the  inherent  and  deeply  rooted  vices  of  their 
character  ;  and  of  the  very  nature  of  their  religion.     With 
the  exception  of  any  attacks  on  the  life  and  persons  of  the 
Jews,  he  advocated  the  reproduction  of  those  enactments 
of  the  middle  ages  which  tended  to  purge  Christendom  of 
its  Jewish  population.     In  the  absence  of  such  measures  he 
foretold  that  in  less  than  forty  years  all  Christians  would  be 
in  a  state  of  dependence  on  the  Jews.     In  a  like  spirit,  and 
if  possible  more  violent,  one  Frederick  of  Frankfort  pub- 
lished his  opinion  in  an  anonymous  pamphlet.     Many  voices 
then   arose   in   defense   of   the    Jews ;  among   themselves, 
Zimmern,    of  Heidelberg,    and    Herz,    of   Frankfort;    and 
among  the  Christians  Johann  Ludvvig  Ewald  of  Carlsruhe 
and  August  Kramer  of  Ratisbon.     While  even  some  mem- 
bers of  the  Catholic  priesthood  stood  up  in  defense  of  the 
Jews,  Professor  Paulus  of  Heidelberg  distinguished  himself 
as  the  bitterest  opponent  of  the  Jews  and  declared  his  opin- 
ion in  favor  of  their   entire   exclusion.     It   was   thus   that 
during  the  period  of  reaction  from  1815  to  1830,  the  question 
of  emancipating  the  Jews  considerably  retrograded.     Not 
only  in  the  monarchial  states  of  Germany,  also  in  the  free 
towns  of  Frankfort,  Lubeck,  and   Bremen  measures  were 
taken  to  restrict   and   revoke    the   rights   of  their   Jewish 
inhabitants.     At  Lubeck,  as  early  as  1815,  they  had  already 
concocted  the  design  to  drive  the  Jews  from  the  country 
and  as  far  as  the  precincts  of  the  city  were  concerned,  the 
plan  was  carried  into  effect  in  1819.     IR  other  places  the 
excesses  of  the  middle  ages  seemed  likely  to  be  revived  ;  in 
some  towns  the  old  death-cry  of   "  Hep,  Hep  "   arose  ;  the 


'54 

houses  were  pillaged  and  demolished,  as  in  Hamburg,  where 
a  similar  outrage  was  repeated  as  late  as  the  year  1835. 

But  in  the  year  1830,  fresh  revolutionary  movements 
arose  in  France,  which  spread  afterwards  over  Europe,  and 
influenced  Germany  more  especially.  The  old  tendency 
to  a  union  of  the  German  States  under  an  Imperial  Govern- 
ment again  revived.  At  this  time,  a  second  and  even  a 
third  generation  of  the  liberal  Jews  had  arisen.  They  were 
no  longer  the  same  men  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  had  felt  themselves  encumbered  by  their 
recently  acquired  rights,  and  who  had  been  prevented  to 
take  their  position  in  society  by  the  various  prejudices  of 
Jews  and  Christians.  Now,  on  the  contrary,  united  with 
"  Young  Germany  "  in  a  system  of  radical  liberty,  the  new 
generation  of  Jews  enforced  its  claims  to  a  complete  eman- 
cipation on  the  ground  of  its  forming  an  integral  part  of  the 
nation.  They  maintained  that,  if  hitherto  all  efforts  to 
organize  for  the  Jews  a  limited  and  conditional  equality 
had  failed,  it  was  precisely  on  account  of  this  limitation 
that  it  had  fallen  to  the  ground.  Then  only  can  the  Jew- 
ish population  fulfil  its  duty  to  Germany,  and  Germany  be 
what  it  should  be  to  its  Jewish  and  Christian  inhabitants, 
when,  without  any  reserve  or  restriction  whatever,  liberty 
and  equality  shall  be  insured  alike  to  all.  The  question 
was  frequently  discussed  by  the  press,  in  the  cabinets  of 
kings,  and  in  the  different  assemblies  in  the  states  of  Ger- 
many, but  not  until  the  revolutionary  changes  of  France 
and  Germany  in  1848  was  the  emancipation  of  the  Jews 
effected  to  its  full  extent.  Since  then  the  relation  of  the 
German  Jews  to  their  government  has  not  suffered  any 
material  change,  but  their  internal  condition  has  been 
steadily  improving  ;  and  if  the  enfranchisement  of  the  Jews 
has  been  of  a  slower  pace  in  Germany  than  in  some  other 
countries,  they  surely  have  not  been  tardy  in  taking  advan- 


155 

tage  of  every  step  they  gained.  The  rapid  progress  made 
by  them  in  the  paths  of  science  and  literature  has  no 
parallel.  In  medicine,  astronomy,  and  mathematics,  they 
not  only  equal,  but,  in  consequence  of  the  progress  of 
science  during  so  many  centuries,  surpass  the  great  models 
of  their  nation  in  Spain  in  the  middle-ages.  Rabbinical 
theology,  by  reason  of  the  multiplied  studies  and  rigid 
examinations  exacted  by  the  government,  has  assumed  a 
truly  scientific  character.  Germany  now  forms  the  great 
centre  of  Jewish  learning;  it  is  to  her  schools  and  seminaries 
that  the  Jewish  world  partly  owes  its  emancipation,  or  rather 
its  fitness  for  emancipation,  and  that  we  Americans  are 
specially  indebted  for  the  excellent  preachers  which  fill  our 
pulpits,  the  rich  literature  which  she  has  given  us,  and  the 
many  accomplished  teachers  who  labor  in  our  religious 
schools. 

The  Jews  under  the  dominion  of  the  emperor  of  Russia 
have  hitherto  not  been  so  fortunate  as  to  attain  to  the  full 
enjoyment  of  their  rights  as  citizens.  Alexander,  in  1805, 
and  again  in  1809,  granted  them  some  privileges  in  pursuing 
different  branches  of  business  and  in  agriculture,  but  in  that 
vast  empire,  where  the  subjects  are  at  so  great  a  distance 
from  the  monarch  and  left  to  the  control  of  subordinates, 
and  where  the  prejudice  of  the  people  against  the  Jews  is 
very  strong,  these  imperial  decrees  effected  little  or  no  good. 
The  enterprise  of  a  certain  philanthropist,  Nathan  Funkel- 
stein,  in  1818,  to  establish  Jewish  settlements  met  with 
considerable  success,  and  found  favor  with  the  emperor, 
who  granted  the  new  settlers  an  immunity  of  taxes  for 
twenty  years.  Several  thousands  of  Jews  availed  themselves 
of  the  opportunity,  and  seven  villages,  to  which  Hebrew 
names  were  given,  became  the  happy  homes  of  these  people 
who  devoted  themselves  to  agriculture  and  the  raising  of 
cattle.  They  were  farmers  in  summer  and  talmudical  stu- 


'56 

dents  in  winter.  In  the  districts  of  the  Caucasian  mountains 
similar  settlements  were  formed  which  became  so  flourish- 
ing that  several  thousands  of  Russians  embraced  Judaism  in 
order  to  join  them.  The  emperor  Nicholas,  not  so  favor- 
able to  his  Jewish  subjects,  recalled  into  force  some  of  the 
old  regulations  which  determined  the  residence  of  the  Jews  ; 
drove  them  from  the  capital  and  many  other  cities  ;  and 
otherwise  restricted  their  movements  and  occupations. 
The  old  blood-accusations,  which  were  renewed  about  this 
time,  were,  however,  discredited  and  disdained  by  him,  and 
the  instigators  punished.  Under  the  reign  of  the  present 
emperor,  the  condition  of  the  Jews  has  somewhat  improved, 
owing  to  the  general  progress  of  the  times,  and  more  through 
the  intervention  of  Sir  M.  Montefiore  and  other  benevolent 
friends  of  humanity  who  interested  themselves  in  their 
behalf,  but  it  is  far  yet  from  what  it  ought  to  be.  The  great 
misfortune  is  that  a  very  large  portion  of  the  Russian 
population  are  yet  in  a  state  of  semi-barbarism.  General 
education  and  the  enlightenment  of  the  present  age  have 
scarcely  penetrated  these.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
no  school  can  be  found  within  a  hundred  miles  or  more, 
and  wherever  there  is  ignorance,  there  is  prejudice,  there  is 
intolerance  ;  and  considering  that  nearly  half  of  the  Jewish 
population  of  the  world,  nor  far  from  three  millions,  are 
under  Russian  dominion,  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  a 
great  deal  to  be  accomplished  yet,  by  those  noble  individ- 
uals and  by  the  various  Jewish  societies  in  Western  Europe, 
whose  aim  it  is  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  their  brethren. 

MOSES  MENDELSSOHN  AND  HIS  COTEMPORARIES. 
MODERN  JEWISH   REFORM. 

The  life  and  labors  of  Moses  Mendelssohn  have  been  of 
such  great  influence  on  modern  Judaism  and  on  Jewish 
emancipation  that  we  deem  it  necessary  to  devote  a  separate 


article  to  the  same.  The  various  causes  which  brought 
about  the  successive  changes  in  the  condition  of  the  Jews 
in  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  as  the  Reformation, 
the  revolutions  and  changes  of  government  between  1789 
and  1848,  the  accession  of  Napoleon  and  of  Joseph  II.,  all 
these  acted,  as  it  were,  from  without,  leaving  the  internal 
state  of  the  Jewish  communities  unchanged  ;  but  the  life  of 
Mendelssohn  and  his  co-laborers  mark  a  very  decisive 
period  in  the  history  of  our  nation,  inasmuch  as  the  labors 
of  these  great  men  produced  such  an  internal  change  in  the 
condition  of  their  brethren  as  to  make  them  fit  recipients  of 
the  emancipation  that  was  in  store  for  them.  Let  us  trace 
the  life  of  this  wonderful  man  through  its  different  stages  of 
boyhood,  adolescence,  and  manhood,  like  the  life  of  a  tender 
but  precious  plant,  whose  growth  we  watch  with  solicitude. 
Moses  Mendelssohn  was  born  at  Dessau,  September  6th, 
1729.  His  father  was  in  very  humble  circumstances  and 
earned  a  scanty  living  by  teaching  Hebrew  and  transcribing 
the  Pentateuch  on  parchment.  Young  Moses,  who  was  of 
a  delicate  constitution  and  somewhat  deformed,  received 
his  early  instruction  at  home,  but  at  the  age  of  ten  he  had 
already  acquired  such  a  familiarity  with  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage and  literature  that  his  father  found  it  necessary  to 
place  him  under  the  instruction  of  an  abler  teacher  than 
himself.  Not  without  emotion  do  we  read  in  the  history  of 
his  life  how,  in  the  cold  winter  mornings  before  daybreak, 
with  scarcely  clothes  enough  to  keep  him  warm,  the  father 
carried  the  tender  child  to  the  school  of  R.  David  Frankel^ 
where  Moses  received  his  first  talmudical  lessons.  At 
that  time  he  began  to  entertain  a  partiality  for  the  writings 
of  Maimonides  and  especially  his  Moreh  Nebuchim  ;  and 
it  was  the  study  of  these  works  which  caused  the  develop- 
ment of  his  philosophical  genius.  So  intense  was  his 
application  to  study  that  it  prostrated  him  on  the  bed  of 


sickness,  from  which  he  was  scarcely  expected  to  rise.  His 
teacher  Dr.  Frankel  being  called  to  Berlin,  the  boy  Mendels- 
sohn determined  to  follow  him,  and  provided  with  but  a  few 
small  pieces  of  coin,  without  recommendation,  without 
friends,  and  with  a  natural  timidity  and  averseness  to  ask 
favors,  he  entered  the  metropolis  of  learning  in  search  of 
more  knowledge.  But  there  also  poverty  stared  him  in  the 
face,  and  though  but  fourteen  years  old,  he  was  obliged  to 
relinquish  his  studies  and  work  for  a  living  which  he  but 
scantily  gained  as  a  copyist  and  corrector  of  the  press.  But 
no  difficulties  whatsoever  could  repress  in  Moses  the  indo- 
mitable desire  for  learning.  In  his  leisure  hours,  and  often 
after  midnight,  he  pursued  his  studies,  if  it  happened  that 
he  was  fortunate  enough  to  have  a  lamp  or  candle  by  which 
to  read.  Ever  occupied  with  the  Talmud  and  other  Hebrew 
works,  he  now  began  to  feel  the  necessity  of  a  correct  knowl- 
edge of  the  German  which  at  that  time  was  possessed  by  only 
very  few  of  his  co-religionists  ;  and  so  well  did  he  master 
that  language  that  his  contributions  to  German  literature 
stand  to  this  day  as  proud  monuments  of  his  genius.  He 
next  thirsted  for  a  knowledge  of  mathematics  ;  but  how  to 
obtain  the  books,  and  where  to  find  a  teacher?  Just  then 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Israel  Samos,  a  Polish  Jew  who 
had  been  persecuted  and  driven  from  his  home  because  he 
had  expressed  too  liberal  opinions,  and  depreciated  the  Tal- 
mud and  some  rabbinical  institutions.  This  man  came  to 
Mendelssohn  one  day  and  said,  "  My  friend,  I  am  without 
money,  but  here  I  have  six  volumes  of  Euclid  I  wish  to  dis- 
pose of,  buy  them  of  me."  Mendelssohn  eagerly  grasped 
the  treasure,  turned  over  leaf  after  leaf  in  deep  and  sad 
silence,  while  the  impatient  visitor  resumed,  "  I  haven't  had 
a  mouthful  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  wish  to  buy  a  meal 
with  the  proceeds  of  these  books."  "  My  good  friend," 
said  Moses,  "I  am  as  poor  as  you  are,  gladly  would  I  take 


159 

the  books  at  any  price,  but  I  have  no  means  to  buy  them, 
but  here  is  some  bread  and  fruit  which  I  set  apart  for  my 
supper  ;  take  it,  I  shall  have  a  good  meal  to-morrow."  "  I 
accept  it;  hunger  knows  no  shame,"  said  the  other.  "  Now, 
young  man,"  continued  he,  after  having  somewhat  satisfied 
his  craving  appetite,  "  you  have  given  me  all  you  had,  let  me 
do  as  much  for  you  ;  I  not  only  give  you  the  books,  but  I 
shall  assist  you  in  studying  them,  for  I  have  acquired  some 
proficiency  in  mathematics."  The  study  of  the  classical 
languages  and  authors  was  his  next  step,  then  of  the  mod- 
ern languages,  and  thus  our  young  philosopher  mounted 
step  by  step  the  ladder  of  science  with  astounding  rapidity. 
His  bright  intellect  and  the  progress  he  had  made  on  the 
path  of  learning  could  not  fail  now  to  attract  the  attention 
of  other  scholars,  and  he  soon  gained  the  acquaintance  and 
friendship  of  Lessing,  Nicolai,  Abbt,  and  other  distinguished 
German  literati.  His  Phaedon,  on  the  Immortality  of  the 
Soul,  by  which  he  acquired  the  surname  of  "The  Jewish 
Socrates  ;"  his  work  "On  the  Sensation  of  the  Beautiful," 
and  a  volume  of  "  Philosophical  Dialogues  "  were  particu- 
larly admired,  and  gained  for  him  greater  fame  among  Chris- 
tians than  among  his  own  people;  indeed,  some  of  his  works 
rather  gave  offence  to  the  rabbis  who  saw  in  these  writings 
a  deviation  from  orthodox  Judaism.  But  his  subsequent 
publication  of  a  commentary  on  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
other  Hebrew  works,  and  more  especially  his  strict  adher- 
ence through  life  to  all  the  observances  of  rabbinical  Juda- 
ism, allayed  the  uneasiness  of  his  pious  friends  about  his 
suspected  tendency  to  free  thought.  Some  zealous  Chris- 
tians, in  order  to  claim  him  as  one  of  their  own,  have  as- 
cribed to  him  strong  proclivities  for  the  Christian  faith,  and 
some  have  been  bold  enough  to  say  that  he  embraced 
Christianity,  but  these  imputations  are  entirely  without 
foundation.  Among  others  Lavater,  the  celebrated  physi- 


i6o 

ognomist,  urged  him  to  join  the  Church,  in  reply  to  which 
he  published  "  A  letter,"  remarkable  for  its  calm,  dispassion- 
ate reasoning,  and  a  firm  vindication  of  his  adherence  to 
his  paternal  religion.  Mendelssohn  distinguished  himself 
by  his  mild,  amiable  disposition,  and  his  readiness  to  serve 
his  friends,  and  by  an  extreme  aversion  to  animated  con- 
troversy. In  1771,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  royal 
academy  ;  but  the  king  disapproved  the  choice,  on  hearing 
which,  Mendelssohn  mildly  said,  "  Better  the  academy 
think  me  worthy  of  membership  and  not  the  king,  than  if 
the  case  were  reversed."  The  scriptural  passage,  "The 
man  Moses  was  very  meek,"  may  be  very  properly  applied 
to  him.  Mendelssohn  died  January  4th,  1786,  deeply  la- 
mented by  the  literary  world  and  a  host  of  admiring  friends. 
The  fruitful  results  of  this  great  man's  labors  upon  Jew- 
ish society  can  hardly  he  overestimated,  and  to  appreciate 
them  we  must  consider  that  the  Jews  of  that  period — es- 
pecially in  Germany — lived,  as  we  before  observed,  in  a 
state  of  exclusion.  Hated  and  repulsed  by  their  neighbors, 
and  withdrawing  themselves  from  the  world  around,  they 
lived  in  the  midst  of  society  as  a  separate  body,  enjoying 
the  satisfaction  that,  under  the  rule  of  Providence,  they 
were  not  excluded  as  unworthy,  but  kept  apart  as  a  sacred 
people.  Hence  all  intercourse  with  strangers,  except  as 
their  pecuniary  interests  for  self-preservation  required  it ; 
all  familiarity  with  what  was  not  strictly  Jewish,  they  thought 
an  infraction  on  their  religion ;  in  short,  all  that  was  not 
Jewish  was  anti-Jewish  to  them.  It  was  the  task  of  Men- 
delssohn to  remove  this  deeply  rooted  impression  ;  to  show 
the  people  that  there  were  things  worth  knowing  besides 
the  Pentateuch  and  the  Talmud.  This  he  did,  not  so  much 
by  preaching  or  teaching,  as  by  his  own  example ;  by  diving 
into  the  depths  of  philosophy  and  metaphysics,  and  attract- 
ing to  himself  the  master  spirits  of  the  age,  and  yet  remain- 


ing  in  practice  an  orthodox  Jew.  We  look  upon  Mendels- 
sohn as  the  first  mover  of  modern  Jewish  reform,  yet  he  did 
not  propose  to  introduce  anything  like  reform  such  as  we 
have  it  now.  Had  he  made  the  attempt,  he  would  have  ac- 
complished nothing,  just  as  many  well-meaning  men  frus- 
trate their  own  plan  by  attempting  to  do  too  much.  Men- 
delssohn did  for  his  people  just  as  much  as  was  necessary 
and  suitable  for  the  time  :  he  removed  the  first  barriers  that 
separated  them  from  their  fellow-men;  he  bridged  the 
chasm  that  lay  between  them  by  making  them  acquainted 
with  their  native  language  in  its  purity  through  the  very 
channels  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  of  which  he  furnished  an 
elegant  and  correct  German  version.  Even  that  brought 
down  upon  him  the  censure  and  anathema  of  some  benighted, 
over-pious  rabbis,  who  burnt  some  of  his  Bibles  in  the  court- 
yard of  the  synagogue  at  Prague.  But  his  works  spread, 
nevertheless,  and  were  received  with  favor,  not  only  in 
Germany,  but  in  Holland,  France,  England,  and  Italy  like- 
wise. Thus  Mendelssohn  awakened  in  his  people  a  desire 
for  knowledge,  a  taste  for  branches  of  learning  hitherto  un- 
known to  them;  he  opened  for  them  the  road  to  mental  im- 
provement, to  refinement,  to  civilization.  And  when  the 
question  is  asked,  "  What  good  has  reform  done  to  Judaism  ?" 
it  may  with  justice  and  propriety  be  answered  that  it  has 
rendered  the  Jews  fit  to  receive  the  blessings  of  entire  and 
universal  emancipation,  which  otherwise  would  have  been — 
as  indeed  in  the  beginning  it  was  to  them — an  embarrass- 
ment, a  burden,  rather  than  a  blessing. 

The  good  work  which  Mendelssohn  had  begun  was  taken 
up  also  by  several  of  his  cotemporaries,  among  whom  we 
notice  especially  the  following  :  Hartwig  Wessely  (born 
in  Hamburg,  1725,  and  died  1805)  distinguished  himself 
by  his  zeal  to  promote  reform  among  his  co-religionists. 
Being  engaged  in  a  business-house  at  Amsterdam,  he  em- 


162 

ployed  his  leisure  hours  in  study,  and  acquired  several 
modern  languages,  but  excelled  in  the  knowledge  of  Hebrew. 
He  wrote  several  useful  books,  among  which  his  "  Hebrew 
Synonyms"  is  well  known  and  appreciated.  Not  being 
successful  in  business,  he  consoled  himself  by  following  the 
path  of  literature  ;  went  to  Berlin,  and  formed  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  Mendelssohn,  and,  like  the  latter,  adhered 
closely  to  the  synagogue.  He  interested  himself  particu- 
larly for  education,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  edict  of 
toleration  by  Joseph  II.,  being  asked  to  furnish  a  plan  for 
regulating  the  new  schools  to  be  established,  he  gave  it  as 
his  opinion  that  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  should  be  made 
primary,  and  the  Talmud  secondary;  and  that  a  secular 
education  should  be  joined  to  the  religious.  This  called 
forth  a  severe  condemnation  from  the  pens  of  the  Polish 
rabbis,  but  Wessely's  plan  was  adopted.  His  fame  as  a 
Hebrew  poet  stands  high,  and  his  epistolary  publication  in 
favor  of  the  training  and  instruction  of  youth  are  consid- 
ered valuable  contributions  to  the  cause  of  Jewish  reform. 

Isaac  Euchel,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1756,  was  an  excel- 
lent scholar  of  the  same  period,  and  in  the  knowledge  of 
Oriental  literature  excelled  even  Mendelssohn.  He  was 
the  first  who  undertook  a  German  translation  of  the  Jewish 
liturgy,  urging  the  necessity  of  people  understanding  their 
prayers.  He  wrote  a  translation  and  commentary  on  the 
Proverbs  of  Solomon,  and  a  biography  of  his  friend  Men- 
delssohn. This  clever  and  talented  author  also  was  obliged 
to  support  himself  by  trade  till  the  time  of  his  death  which 
happened  in  1804. 

David  Friedlander,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1749,  was 
another  of  those  friends  of  Mendelssohn  who,  by  their  in- 
defatigable activity  and  valuable  works,  acquired  a  name 
among  their  brethren  in  Germany.  He  settled  in  Berlin  in 
1780,  and  lived  in  society  with  the  most  distinguished  per- 


sons  of  his  age,  both   Christians  and  Jews,  without   ever 
losing  sight  of  the  main  object  he  had  in  view,  viz.,  to  seek 
the  improvement  of  his  nation  by  every  means  in  his  power. 
With  this  view  he  translated  several  German  classical  works 
into  Hebrew,  and  several  portions  of  the  Bible  into  German. 
He  also  made  an  improved  translation   of  the  prayers,  and 
by  the  establishment  of  schools  for  the  poor  he  conferred  a 
benefit  which  long  survived  him.     Always  active,  sometimes 
too  precipitate  in  his  zeal  for  a  true  and  thorough  reform  of 
Judaism,  some  of  his  writings,  in  which  he  vigorously  opposed 
existing  prejudices  and   abuses,  elicited    severe   criticism- 
When   Frederic  William  II.  issued  orders  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  Jews  in  his  kingdom,  and  desired  a  statement  of 
the  opinion  of  the   Jews  themselves  on  the  subject,  Fried- 
lander,  who  presided  over  a  committee  appointed  for  the 
purpose,  drew  up  a  document  in  which  he  displayed  unusual 
vigor  and  ability.     He  candidly  stated  the  faults  and  defi- 
ciencies which  still  prevailed  among  his  people;  the  connec- 
tion of  these  with  the  imperfect  state  of  freedom  the  Jews 
hitherto  enjoyed;  and  the  disadvantage  to  the  state  of  hav- 
ing in  its  midst  a  class  of  people  who  cannot  enjoy  an 
equality  of  rights  with  their  fellow-citizens.     Even  to  the 
advanced  age  of  seventy-five,   Friedlander   ceased  not  to 
labor  in  the  cause  of  his  people  in  the  different  relations  in 
which  he  was  placed  or  to  which  he  was  called.     His  long 
career  of  activity  and  usefulness  closed  in  the  year  1834. 

The  seeds  sown  by  Mendelssohn  in  the  field  which  his 
friends  and  followers  continued  to  cultivate  now  began  to 
produce  fair  and  abundant  fruits.  The  spirit  of  learning 
and  investigation  which  he  had  awakened  began  to  spread 
widely  among  the  new  generations ;  many  applied  them- 
selves to  the  study  of  polite  literature,  and  the  production 
of  many  a  profound  scholar  who  became  the  pride  of  his 
nation  was  the  result  of  the  initiative  steps  taken  by  our 

! 
or  THC 


1 64 

great  reformer  who  has  been  justly  styled  "The  third 
Moses."  We  have  already  made  mention  of  the  enlight- 
ened and  wealthy  gentleman,  Israel  Jacobson,  who  at  his 
own  expense  established  a  seminary  in  Cassel.  He  it  was 
also  who  first  introduced  reform  into  our  synagogue-service. 
He  erected  an  elegant  temple,  and  inaugurated  it  with  pom- 
pous ceremonies  on  the  zyth  of  July,  1810,  and  it  was  there 
that  after  eighteen  centuries  the  sound  of  instrumental  music 
and  a  well  regulated  choir  was  again  heard  to  accompany 
the  prayers  of  a  Jewish  congregation  who  were  delighted 
and  edified  by  what  we  may  call  an  indispensable  concom- 
itant of  divine  worship.  In  the  absence  of  a  regular  min- 
ister, Mr.  Jacobson  often  ascended  the  rostrum  to  address 
his  friends,  and  thus  set  an  example  to  others  who  not  un- 
frequently  entertained  the  audience  with  eloquent  discour- 
ses. Urged  by  political  circumstances,  Mr.  Jacobson  moved 
to  Berlin  and  there  established  a  synagogue  on  a  small 
scale  and  on  the  same  principles  as  that  in  Cassel  ;  where 
some  changes  were  introduced,  and  some  German  prayers 
substituted  for  the  Hebrew.  In  1819,  a  reform  temple  was 
established  at  Hamburg,  where  Dr.  Kley,  and  afterwards 
Dr.  Salomon,  both  profound  scholars  and  eloquent  preach- 
ers, enlightened  their  audiences  with  stirring  and  impres- 
sive discourses.  The  liberal  movement  spread  further  and 
farther,  and  with  the  immigration  of  Germans  into  America 
was  introduced  into  this  country,  where  daily  it  gains 
strength  and  stability.  Outside  of  these  countries  there 
exists  very  little  reform  yet  in  Jewish  congregations.  In 
London,  in  the  year  1840,  a  number  of  Jews,  at  the  head  of 
whom  stood  Sir  Isaac  L.  Goldsmith  and  other  prominent 
gentlemen,  organized  a  reform  congregation,  and  called  it 
"  The  Congregation  of  British  Jews."  The  Rev.  D.  W. 
Marks  was  elected  and  is  yet  their  chief  pastor;  and  later, 
a  congregation  on  the  same  principles  was  formed  at  Man- 


Chester.  In  the  new  grand  temple  at  Paris,  an  organ  and 
choir,  and  some  slight  changes  in  the  ritual  have  been 
introduced,  and  also  in  the  West  Indies  some  congregations 
have  adopted  a  certain  reform.  The  rest  of  the  Jews  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  as  well  as  a  number  of  congre- 
gations in  this  country,  still  cling  to  their  traditional  prac- 
tices and  their  ancient  rituals. 

JEWS  IN  AMERICA. 

Shortly  after  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  a  few  Jews 
sought  a  refuge  there  from  the  oppression  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion, which  was  then  in  full  force  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
We  know  that  their  first  settlement  was  in  Brazil,  whither 
it  is  said,  in  1548,  a  great  number  of  New  Christians  were 
sent  as  a  kind  of  banishment  by  the  Portuguese  Govern- 
ment. There  they  successfully  cultivated  the  soil,  and  first 
planted  the  sugar-cane.  Nothing  more  definitely  is  known 
about  their  names,  numbers,  or  particular  places  of  resi- 
dence, and  it  is  not  until  a  good  many  years  afterward  that 
we  have  any  better  information  about  the  Jews  settling  in 
America.  In  1624,  a  number  of  French  Jews  came  to 
Brazil,  and  together  with  others  who  had  already  lived  on 
the  continent  for  years,  formed  a  new  colony  with  David 
Cohen  Nassi  at  their  head.  These  were  later  joined  by  600 
emigrants  from  Amsterdam,  under  the  leadership  of  two 
rabbis,  Raphael  Moses  de  Aguilar  and  Isaac  Aboab.  As 
this  colony  began  to  acquire  a  greater  degree  of  influence 
than  the  Catholic  Government  of  Portugal  could  well  tol- 
erate, measures  were  proposed  to  check  the  increase  and 
power  of  the  Brazilian  Jews;  but  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try by  the  Dutch  brought  about  a  complete  change,  entirely 
favorable  to  the  Jewish  population.  The  Dutch  Govern- 
ment, and  especially  the  new  governor,  John  Maurice  de 
Nassau,  encouraged  them  by  the  entire  toleration  of  their 


i66 

religion,  and  by  every  mark  of  distinction  and  courtesy. 
The  States-General  passed  an  ordinance,  in  1645,  in  which 
"  the  persons,  goods,  and  rights  of  the  Jews  in  Brazil  were 
taken  under  the  special  protection  of  the  government, 
because  of  the  fidelity  and  courage  which  that  nation  had, 
on  every  occasion,  displayed  towards  the  said  government." 
The  records  of  history  bear  witness  how  much  the  Jews 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  valor,  both  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest  and  in  the  defence  of  Brazil  by  the  Dutch 
against  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese.  One  de  Pinto  was 
killed  at  his  post  while  bravely  defending  one  of  the  for- 
tresses ;  and  in  the  trying  times  of  1645  and  1654,  great 
services  were  rendered  by  the  family  Cohen,  who  supplied 
the  troops  with  provisions  and  ammunition.  Out  of  this 
Brazilian  colony  grew  another  settlement,  at  Cayenne.  The 
Dutch  West  India  Company,  by  an  edict  dated  i2th 
September,  1659,  granted  to  David  C.  Nassi,  above  named, 
extensive  rights  and  liberties  at  Cayenne  for  himself  and 
companions.  This  congregation  was  increased  by  the  arri- 
val of  several  families  from  Leghorn,  but  its  progress  was 
hindered  by  the  war,  first  with  Portugal,  and  then  with 
France,  which  took  the  country  in  1664.  Finding  their  posi- 
tion too  uncomfortable,  the  Jews  of  Cayenne  broke  up 
en  masse  for  Surinam,  whither  they  were  attracted  by  en- 
couraging promises  of  Lord  Willoughby  who,  in  1662, 
obtained  from  Charles  II.  a  charter  for  the  colonization  of 
that  country  ;  and  in  three  years  the  banks  of  the  river  in 
Surinam  were  adorned  with  forty  or  fifty  plantations,  and  a 
Jewish  population  of  about  four  thousand.  They  were  on 
a  footing  of  perfect  equality  with  the  English  inhabitants  ; 
and  when  in  1666  the  Dutch  government  made  themselves 
masters  of  that  colony,  the  rights  of  the  Jews  were  entirely 
confirmed.  At  this  time  also  a  considerable  number  of 
Jewish  families  went  to  form  a  colony  at  Jamaica,  where  the 


i67 

cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  was  very  much  improved, 
owing  to  their  settlement  on  the  island.  There  are  at 
present  two  congregations,  one  Portuguese  and  one  Ger- 
man, at  Kingston,  and  smaller  Jewish  communities  at 
Spanishtown  and  Montego  Bay.  In  1652,  the  island  of 
Cura£ao,  situated  a  few  miles  to  the  north  of  South  Amer- 
ica, was,  as  it  is  now  again,  under  dominion  of  the  Dutch 
government,  and  a  large  tract  of  land  was  granted  to  Joseph 
Nunes  de  Fonseca  and  others  to  found  a  colony  of  Jews  in 
that  island,  but  the  attempt  failed,  there  being  no  more  than 
twelve  settlers  on  the  tract.  Later,  however,  they  became 
numerous  and  flourishing,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  they  built  the  first  synagogue,  which  was 
soon  replaced  by  a  larger  and  much  better  one.  In  1863, 
a  considerable  number  of  families  seceded  from  the  old 
community  to  form  a  congregation  on  reform  principles,  and 
two  years  later  erected  a  handsome  temple,  in  which  it  is 
the  privilege  of  the  writer  now  to  officiate  as  minister. 

It  is  well-known  that  in  1614  the  Dutch  took  possession 
of  what  was  then  called  Manhattan  Island,  now  New  York. 
This  was  not  done  by  the  Dutch  government,  but  under 
its  sanction  by  an  association  of  prominent  merchants  at 
Amsterdam  who  had  formed  a  company  under  the  name  of 
The  West  India  Company.  We  have  already  seen  that  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews,  who  had  found  an  asylum  in 
Holland,  were  wealthy  and  enterprising;  and  some  of  them 
were  not  only  shareholders  to  a  large  amount,  but  also  di- 
rectors of  the  West  India  Company.  The  object  of  this 
company  was  ostensibly  to  promote  the  settlement  of  new 
countries,  and  for  the  general  purposes  of  traffic;  but  in 
reality  was  organized  to  secure  pecuniary  gain  by  the  cap- 
ture of  the  richly  laden  Spanish  vessels,  and  by  the  seizure 
of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  possessions  in  the  West  Indies 
and  in  South  America.  At  one  time  this  company  had  no 


i68 

less  than  seventy  armed  vessels  in  its  service.  In  1630, 
Bahia,  or  St.  Salvador,  then  the  capital  of  Brazil,  was  cap- 
tured by  its  fleet,  and  for  twelve  successive  years  afterwards 
its  conquests  were  frequent  and  important.  About  this 
time,  however,  a  treaty  of  -peace  was  concluded  between 
the  Dutch  and  the  Portuguese  governments  ;  and  when  in 
1654  Brazil  was  re-taken  by  the  Portuguese,  the  Jews  were 
ordered  to  leave  the  country,  under  protection,  however,  of 
the  authorities,  and  with  permission  to  take  with  them  all 
their  property  ;  the  viceroy  granted  them  further  time  to 
arrange  their  affairs,  and  thirty  vessels  to  convey  them  to 
Holland.  Most  of  these  emigrants  returned  to  old  Amster- 
dam, while  a  few  of  them  set  sail  for  New  Amsterdam,  now 
New  York  ;  and  it  appears  that  this  was  the  first  arrival  of 
Jews  within  the  limits  of  what  is  now  called  the  United 
States.  Only  twenty-seven  of  them,  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, arrived  here  in  the  bark  St.  Catarina;  and  it  seems 
that  they  were  in  a  destitute  condition,  or  that  they  had 
been  obliged  to  leave  in  great  haste,  for  upon  their  arrival 
their  goods  were  sold  at  auction  for  the  payment  of  their 
passage,  and  the  amount  realized  being  insufficient,  two  of 
their  number  were  kept  in  custody;  but  as  no  further  pro- 
ceedings appear  on  the  records,  the  matter  seems  to  have 
been  amicably  arranged.* 

Stuyvesant  was  then  governor  of  New  Amsterdam,  and 
on  many  occasions  showed  his  hostility  to  the  Jews.  He 
wrote  to  the  home  government,  requesting  "that  none  of 
the  Jewish  nation  be  permitted  to  infest  New  Netherland." 
The  answer  was  worthy  of  Holland,  "  that  his  request  was 
inconsistent  with  reason  and  justice."  Still  the  Jews  were 
frequently  annoyed  by  the  authorities  and  the  people  ;  and 
finding  their  new  abode  uncomfortable,  a  number  of  them 

*  From  a  lecture  by  Judge  Daly,  published  in  the  Jewish  Times, 
Vol.  IV.,  Nos.  15-21. 


169 

went  to  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  where  religious  freedom 
was  made  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  commonwealth; 
and  we  find  it  recorded  that,  in  1657,  a  number  of  Jews 
from  Cura9ao  also  made  Newport  their  home.  Stuyve- 
sant's  letter,  instead  of  having  the  effect  he  desired,  had  an 
opposite  result,  for  it  stirred  up  the  Jewish  members  of  the 
West  India  Company  to  ask  for  better  protection  and  priv- 
ileges for  their  brethren  in  the  New  World,  and  a  special 
act  was  issued  to  that  effect.  In  1656,  the  first  Jewish  burial 
place  in  New  Amsterdam  was  established  on  a  piece  of 
ground  granted  them  for  that  purpose.  In  1664,  the  city 
was  taken  by  the  English,  and  received  the  name  of  New 
York.  As  the  Jews  had  to  struggle  with  many  difficulties, 
their  number  did  not  increase  for  some  time,  still  they  per- 
severed in  their  efforts  to  establish  their  religious  union  as 
well  as  their  worldly  interests,  and  in  1695  a  house  on 
Beaver  street,  between  Broadway  and  Broad  street,  was 
fitted  up  as  a  place  of  worship,  with  a  congregation  of 
twenty  families.  About  the  year  1728,  a  small  stone  struc- 
ture was  erected  for  a  synagogue  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
town  in  Mill  street,  which  street  has  since  disappeared  from 
the  map.  The  congregation  was  called  Sheerith  Israel,  and 
is  the  same  Portuguese  congregation  well-known  in  that 
city.  In  the  year  1733,  a  small  number  of  Jewish  families, 
about  forty-five  souls,  immigrated  from  London  and  settled 
in  Savannah,  Georgia,  where  they  landed  on  the  nth  of 
July  of  that  year.  They  were  nearly  all  of  Spanish  or 
Portuguese  descent,  and  soon  formed  themselves  into  a  re- 
ligious body  or  congregation.  Later,  some  of  these  emi- 
grants went  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  subse- 
quently to  other  States,  and  from  time  to  time  many  other 
families  were  induced  to  come  to  these  shores  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world,  and  in  this  manner  the  number  of 
Jews  in  this  country  increased,  until  they  assumed  the  im- 
7 


170 

mense  number  and  the  high  standing  in  which  we  now  find 
them. 

It  would  be  an  interesting  study  to  trace  the  history  of 
the  Jews  in  the  United  States  from  the  earliest  date  to  the 
present  time;  but  we  have  not  now  at  hand  the  resources 
for  such  a  compilation,  nor  would  the  limits  of  this  SYNOP- 
SIS permit  us  to  expatiate;  we  will,  therefore,  content  our- 
selves with  giving  a  few  interesting  collateral  facts. 

It  is  a  singular  coincidence  that  the  same  year  in  which 
happened  the  terrible  catastrophe  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jews  from  the  Spanish  peninsula,  was  the  year  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  New  World;  that  the  same  power  which 
brought  on  that  misfortune,  was  also  instrumental  in  finding 
an  asylum  for  all  who  might  be  persecuted  for  the  sake  of 
their  religion;  and  again  that  the  same  period  which  saw 
in  Europe  the  important  political  changes  tending  to  the 
emancipation  of  the  Jews,  was  also  the  period  in  which  the 
Federal  Union  shook  off  all  foreign  trammels,  and  finally 
declared  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  as  equal  before  the 
law.  It  was  natural  that  the  Jews  of  America,  who  now 
enjoyed  perfect  freedom,  should  commiserate  their  breth- 
ren who  still  groaned  under  the  weight  of  oppression. 
Among  the  philanthropists  who  felt  so  inclined  we  notice 
particularly  the  benevolent  Judge  Mordecai  M.  Noah.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  Mr.  Noah  had  been 
United  States  consul  at  Tunis,  and  was  eye-witness  of  the 
degradation  and  suffering  to  which  the  Jews  under  the 
crescent  were  yet  subject.  His  kind  heart  yearned  to  do 
something  for  the  alleviation  of  their  misfortunes,  and  he 
devised  the  noble,  though  premature  plan  of  an  emigration 
of  those  eastern  Jews  on  a  large  scale.  The  Judge  was 
proprietor  of  a  beautiful  and  fertile  island  called  Grand  Isl- 
and, situated  by  the  Niagara  River  and  Falls,  which  land 
had  been  ceded  to  the  Judge  by  the  State  of  New  York,  in 


liquidation  of  a  debt  due  to  him.  There  he  proposed  to 
establish  a  Jewish  colony  under  the  governorship  of  a  judge 
of  their  own  nation,  and  in  1825  actually  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  city  which  was  to  bear  the  name  of  Ararat,  allud- 
ing to  the  mount  where  Noah's  ark  rested.  He  issued  a 
proclamation  to  the  chiefs  of  the  principal  Jewish  commu- 
nities in  Europe,  styling  himself  "by  the  grace  of  God,  the 
first  Judge  in  Israel,"  and  asking  his  friends  to  promote 
the  grand  undertaking.  In  order  to  give  more  publicity  to 
the  project,  he  arranged  for  a  grand  and  pompous  proces- 
sion, under  the  accompaniment  of  music  and  military  parade ; 
the  principal  personages  being  dressed  in  black  with  red 
velvet  and  ermine  cloaks,  and  headed  by  himself  as  "  The 
Judge/'  On  account  of  the  numerous  attendance,  the  fes- 
tivity was  held,  not  on  Grand  Island,  but  in  the  city  of 
Buffalo;  they  assembled  in  one  of  the  churches,  where  di- 
vine service  was  held,  after  which  the  Judge  ascended  the 
pulpit  and  delivered  a  stirring  address  on  the  re-generation 
of  Israel  and  the  approach  of  the  messianic  time,  to  which 
he  considered  the  present  movement  as  preparatory.  Had 
the  well-meaning  Judge  been  satisfied  with  a  more  modest 
beginning,  the  enterprise  might  have  met  with  some  success, 
while  the  very  grandeur  he  wished  to  impart  to  it  seems  to 
have  killed  it  in  the  bud.  In  1843,  the  same  gentleman 
projected  a  plan  for  the  establishment  of  a  Hebrew  College 
in  the  United  States,  which  plan,  though  apparently  more 
feasible,  was  likewise  premature  and  failed  of  success.  The 
question  has  since  been  frequently  discussed,  and  experi- 
ments to  establish  such  a  seminary  have  been  made  in  New 
York  and  Philadelphia,  but  neither  met  with  sufficient  sup- 
port. In  1873,  however,  the  "  Union  of  American  Hebrew 
Congregations  "  has  been  inaugurated,  and  in  connection 
therewith,  as  the  principal  object  of  the  Union,  a  "  Hebrew 
Theological  College  "  has  been  opened.  This  institution  is 


172 

founded  on  a  pretty  solid  basis  and  promises  good  results. 
The  establishment  of  the  "  Union"  and  the  ''College"  is 
due  chiefly  to  the  energetic  labors  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Isaac  M. 
Wise,  who  is  now  president  of  the  Seminary  and  occupies 
one  of  the  professor's  chairs,  without  accepting  any  remu- 
neration for  his  services.  The  "  Board  of  Delegates  of 
American  Israelites,"  of  which  we  made  mention  before, 
was  called  into  existence  at  the  time  of  the  Mortara  abduc- 
tion, and  had  for  its  object  the  concentration  of  the  Ameri- 
can Jewish  communities  for  the  purpose  of  amelioration, 
protection,  and  education  among  the  Jews  wherever  found. 
During  the  twenty  years  of  its  existence,  it  has  done  very 
good  work  abroad  as  well  as  at  home,  but  being  superseded 
by  the  establishment  of  the  "Union"  just  mentioned,  the 
"  Board  "  has  last  year  (1878),  by  mutual  agreement,  ceded 
its  functions  to  that  institution  and  dissolved.  Among  the 
numerous  benevolent  institutions  formed  in  this  country 
within  the  past  forty  or  fifty  years,  the  Bene  Berith  fraternity 
deserves  particular  mention.  From  a  small  beginning  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  in  1843,  it  has  gradually  increased, 
and  now  extends  all  over  the  United  States,  and  counts  its 
members  by  thousands.  Its  object  was  and  is  still,  to  pro- 
mote union  of  feeling  and  union  of  action  among  American 
Jews,  and  it  has  accomplished  much  in  that  direction.  It 
has  borrowed  something  of  the  Masonic  society  in  the  man- 
ner of  conducting  its  meetings  and  the  mutual  recognition 
•of  its  members;  but  its  outside  workings  in  providing  for 
the  widows  and  orphans,  not  only  of  its  own  members,  but 
of  all  needy  Israelites,  establishing  hospitals,  orphan  asylums, 
and  homes  for  the  aged  and  infirm  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  have  been  productive  of  unspeakable  benefit. 

These  and  similar  institutions  have  contributed  a  great 
deal  to  establish  concord  among  our  people,  and  are  an  evi- 
dence to  prove  this  fact — that  while  preserving  the  chief 


173 

traits  of  our  character,  and  adhering  to  the  principles  of 
our  religion,  we  can  yet  mix  in  friendly  intercourse  with 
persons  of  a  different  creed ;  that  we  can  be  truly  Jews  and 
at  the  same  time  citizens  of  the  world.  This,  indeed,  ap- 
pears to  be  the  providential  dispensation,  that  the  Jew 
should  be  a  true  cosmopolitan ;  Vfot  the  Jewish  race,  as  if 
an  exception  to  all  other  races,  flourishes  in  every  climate, 
and  is  as  vigorous  and  as  prolific  in  the  frosty  north  or  the 
American  wilderness  as  it  was  in  the  genial  climate  of  Spain, 
or  on  the  hot  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  )  The  expulsion  from 
the  Spanish  peninsula,  like  the  dispersion  of  the  people  from 
Palestine,  seems  to  be  intended  to  teach  us  that  a  perfect 
concentration,  an  entire  exclusion  of  our  race,  is  no  part  of 
the  divine  economy;  that  the  command  given  to  Abraham 
"  Get  thee  out  of  thy  country  .  .  .  and  I  will  make  of  thee  a 
great  nation  .  .  .  and  thou  shalt  be  a  blessing  "  is  still  applic- 
able to  his  remotest  offspring.  And  among  the  many  les- 
sons which  a  careful  study  of  our  history  affords,  this  ap- 
pears to  be  one,  that  the  presence  of  Jews  in  the  New 
World  almost  simultaneous  with  its  discovery,  is  but  another 
step  in  the  long  march  of  the  wandering  Jew,  which  is  to 
continue  until  the  time  when  Jehovah  shall  be  Ruler  over 
all  the  earth,  and  his  Unity  be  universally  acknowledged. 


SECOND    PART. 


EXPLANATION     OF 

Some  of  the  Mosaic  Laws. 


INDEX 

TO  EXPLANATION  OF  MOSAIC  LAWS. 


PAGE 

Introduction,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .179 

Distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  animals.  .  .  .  182 

Prohibition  of  eating  blood  and  fat,  ....      185 

Not  to  seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk,  .  .  .  188 

The  manner  of  slaughtering  cattle,  ....      190 

Heterogeneous  mixtures,  .....  192 

Exchange  of  male  and  female  apparel,          .  .  .  .193 

The  manner  of  shaving  the  head  and  beard,       .  .  .  195 

The  Nazarite,  .  .  .  .  .  .196 

Divination,  witchcraft,  etc.,         .  .  .  .  .  198 

Not  to  kindle  fire  on  the  Sabbath,  .  .  .  .201 

Sacrifices,  .......  205 

The  making  of  fringes  on  the  garments,      ....      208 

The  phylacteries,  .  .  .  .  .  .  211 

Writing  on  the  door-posts,  .  .  .  .213 

Swearing.     Taking  an  oath,        .....  215 

The  right  of  primogeniture,  .  .  .  .  .221 

The  levirate  law,  .  .  .  .  .  .  223 

Beheading  the  heifer,  ......     226 

The  rebellious  son,          ......  228 

Taking  a  bird's  nest,  ......     229 

The  Sabbatical  Year  and  the  Jubilee,     ....  230 

The  leprosy,  .  .  .  .  .  .     233 

Not  to  add  to  the  law,  nor  diminish  from  it,      .  .  .  236 


179 


EXPLANATION 


OF 


SOME  OF  THE  MOSAIC  LAWS. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  great  purpose  of  the  Mosaic  institution  was  to 
abolish  all  idolatrous  worship,  which  in  the  early  ages  of 
the  world  was  universal,  and  to  train  th'e  Jewish  people 
gradually  to  the  service  of  the  true  God;  that  they  might 
stand  as  a  model  of  purity  and  rectitude,  and  be  as  an  in- 
strument in  the  hands  of  the  Creator  for  the  ultimate  per- 
fection of  mankind  generally.  To  accomplish  this  end,  it 
was  necessary,  first  of  all,  that  Israel  should  be  separated 
from  the  heathen  nations  among  whom  they  lived,  and  that 
they  should  be  different  in  their  laws  and  customs,  so  as  to 
lessen  as  much  as  possible  their  intercourse  with  other  peo- 
ple. To  this  effect,  Moses  endeavored  to  make  them  an 
agricultural  people,  prohibiting  them  to  make  an  absolute 
sale  of  their  lands;  he  endeavored  to  discourage  commerce 
with  strangers  by  giving  them  rules  of  life  which  would 
render  it  inconvenient  for  them  to  live  among  other  nations; 
he  opposed  emigration  by  making  it  the  duty  of  all  males 
to  appear  three  times  a  year  at  the  temple  in  Jerusalem; 
and  he  discouraged  the  spirit  of  conquest  beyond  Palestine 
by  forbidding  the  king  "  to  multiply  to  himself  horses,  silver, 


i8o 

and  gold,"  and  by  the  absence  of  a  standing  army.  These 
and  many  other  civil  and  political  regulations  apparently 
had  no  connection  with  the  religious  sentiments  of  the  peo- 
ple; yet  in  the  Mosaic  legislation  politics  and  religion  are 
so  closely  interwoven  as  to  be  virtually  one  and  the  same, 
since  all  the  ordinances  were  delivered  in  the  name  of  God, 
and  a  sense  of  man's  obligation  to  obey  God  is  religion.  It 
is  to  be  further  observed  that  in  the  Mosaic  Books — if  we 
except  the  announcement  of  God's  Unity — there  are  no 
articles  of  faith,  nor  is  the  observance  of  the  precepts  con- 
nected by  the  law-giver  with  a  recompense  in  a  future  life; 
no  relation  established  between  the  temporal  and  the  eter- 
nal; no  connection  between  man's  present  conduct  and  a 
spiritual  reward.  This,  it  would  seem,  was  taken  for  grant- 
ed, a  necessary  consequence.  All  mankind  believed  that 
their  prosperity  or  adversity  in  life  depended  upon  the  ob- 
servance or  non-observance  of  certain  religious  duties;  some 
believed  also  that  the  soul  is  immortal  and  that  felicity  or 
suffering  in  a  future  existence  were  dependent  on  man's 
good  or  bad  actions  in  this  life,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  think 
that  the  Israelites  shared  this  belief.  Moses  declared 
simply  that,  if  the  Israelites  obeyed  the  will  of  God,  it  should 
be  well  with  them,  and  they  should  live  happy,  and  if  they 
failed  to  do  so,  they  should  feel  the  direct  consequences  of 
their  misconduct,  to  show  them  that  they  were  under  the 
special  supervision  of  their  Creator,  and  to  show  the  world 
a  living  example  and  positive  proof  that  God  rewards  the 
good  and  punishes  the  evil. 

The  object  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  then,  being  to  pu- 
rify the  Hebrew  people  from  idolatrous  and  immoral  prac- 
tices, the  purpose  of  the  following  discussions  is  to  explain 
in  what  manner  the  precepts  could  accomplish  this  object. 
The  laws  prescribed  are  quite  numerous,  and  there  are 
many  for  which  we  cannot  find  any  apparent  cause,  unless 


we  penetrate  into  the  study  of  the  condition  and  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  Jewish  people  at  the  time  those  laws 
were  prescribed  to  them.  Some  rabbis  expressed  the  opin- 
ion that  many  laws  were  given  without  any  particular  pur- 
pose, except  to  try  the  obedience  and  fidelity  of  the  people, 
and  to  the  end  that  they  should,  at  all  times  and  in  all  their 
actions,  how  trifling  soever,  be  reminded  of  the  duties  God 
imposed  upon  them.  Some  maintained  even  that  it  would 
be  a  depreciation  of  the  divine  commands  to  subject  them 
to  mere  human  reasoning,  while  their  exalted  divine  origin 
is  more  apparent  when  the  human  mind  cannot  penetrate 
into  their  causes.  The  great  and  deeply  learned  Rabbi 
Moses  Maimonides,  however,  took  great  pains  to  show  that 
all  the  Mosaic  precepts  have  their  causes  and  their  utility; 
and  that  none  of  them  proceed  from  the  mere  arbitrary  will 
of  God.  "The  general  intention  of  the  law,"  says  Mai- 
monides, "is  twofold,  namely,  to  promote  the  soundness 
of  the  body,  and  the  soundness  of  the  mind ;  but  the  latter," 
says  he,  "is  by  far  the  most  important."  Now,  as  the  hu- 
man mind,  generally,  had  been  much  perverted  by  super- 
stition and  by  idolatrous  practices,  it  was,  as  we  said,  the 
chief  purpose  of  the  Mosaic  institutions  to  eradicate  all 
ideas  and  all  practices  connected  with  idolatry  or  false 
worship,  and  to  impress  the  Israelites  with  this  great  fun- 
damental truth  that  God  is  One,  that  he  is  the  sole  Creator 
and  supporter  of  all  things  existing;  and  that  to  him  alone 
we  owe  reverence  and  obedience. 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  among  men  of  letters, 
whether  the  laws  of  Moses  were  quite  original,  or  whether 
he  borrowed  them  from  the  Egyptians  and  other  nations  by 
whom  they  were  surrounded.  But  although  the  preponder- 
ance of  argument  is  in  favor  of  their  originality,  yet  it  is 
almost  universally  conceded  that  several  of  the  Mosaic  in- 
stitutions were  but  modifications  of  more  ancient  established 


182 

laws  or  usages,  or  improvements  thereon,  and  that  some 
such  laws  or  customs  were  continued  in  accommodation  to 
the  sentiments  and  habits  of  mind  of  the  people  who  had 
so  long  been  attached  to  those  customs  that  it  would  have 
been  impossible  at  once  to  wean  them  therefrom,  unless 
God  would  have,  in  a  supernatural  manner,  changed  their 
heart  and  mind.  This  was  especially  the  case  with  regard 
to  the  institution  of  sacrifices,  but  it  is  apparent  in  various 
other  instances,  as  we  shall  hereafter  explain.  On  the 
whole,  however,  we  cannot  but  admire  the  wisdom  of  the 
great  legislator,  and  are  forced  to  admit  that,  in  laying  be- 
fore Israel  this  excellent  code  of  laws,  so  admirably  suitable 
for  the  time  and  country  in  which  they  lived,  Moses  must 
have  been  inspired  with  superior  wisdom ;  though  the 
modest  teacher  disclaims  all  credit  for  himself  when  he 
says,  "Behold  I  have  taught  you  statutes  and  judgments 
such  as  the  Lord  my  God  commanded  me,  that  you  should 
do  so  in  the  land  whither  ye  go  to  possess  it." 

EXPLANATION    OF    MOSAIC    LAWS. 

"  These  are  the  animals  which  ye  may  eat  among  all  the  beasts  that 
are  on  the  earth." — Lev.  xi.  2. 

The  eleventh  chapter  of  Leviticus  is  almost  entirely  de- 
voted to  a  statement  of  the  distinguishing  marks  by  which 
the  clean  and  unclean  animals,  that  is,  those  which  are  suit- 
able or  unsuitable  for  food,  may  be  known ;  to  an  enumera- 
tion of  those  that  might  appear  doubtful,  and  of  the  birds 
which  are  considered  unfit  to  be  eaten ;  as  also  of  the  fishes 
and  reptiles,  and  some  that  pollute  even  by  the  touch. 
From  this  chapter,  and  from  the  repetition  of  it  in  Deut.  xiv. 
it  appears  that  quadrupeds  are  considered  as  clean  or 
suitable  when  they  have  cloven  hoofs  and  chew  the  cud; 
fishes  having  fins  and  scales  are  allowed  for  food;  birds  are 
not  distinguished  by  any  marks,  but  the  carnivorous  or  the 


birds  of  prey  are  forbidden.  Of  serpents,  worms,  and  in- 
sects, all  that  creep  or  have  more  than  four  feet  are  prohib- 
ited— locusts  excepted.  The  reason  for  the  prohibition 
of  those  animals  named  or  designated  has  been  the  subject 
of  much  discussion  among  literary  men,  but  the  principal 
one,  and  the  one  on  which  all  are  agreed,  is,  that  they  are 
unwholesome  for  food.  As  we  have  nothing  new  or  original 
to  offer  on  this  subject,  the  best  information  that  can  be  had 
will  be  gained  by  culling  some  extracts  of  commentaries  of 
the  ablest  writers,  both  Jews  and  Christians,  on  the  matter. 
First  of  all,  Maimonides  *  says  briefly,  "  All  those  kinds  of 
food  which  are  forbidden  in  our  law  are  unwholesome."  R. 
Levi,  of  Barcelona,  says,  "  As  the  body  is  the  seat  of  the 
soul,  God  would  have  it  a  fit  instrument  for  its  companion, 
and  therefore  removes  from  his  people  all  those  obstruc- 
tions which  may  hinder  the  soul  in  its  operations;  for 
which  reason  all  such  meats  are  forbidden  which  produce 
impure  blood."  A  learned  Christian  commentator  f  ob- 
serves, "  While  God  keeps  the  eternal  interests  of  man  stead- 
ily in  view,  he  does  not  forget  his  earthly  comfort ;  he  is  at  once 
solicitous  both  for  the  health  of  his  body  and  his  soul.  He  has 
not  forbidden  certain  aliments  because  he  is  a  sovereign,  but 
because  he  knew  they  would  be  injurious  to  the  health  and 
morals  of  his  people.  Solid-footed  animals,  such  as  the 
horse,  and  many-toed  animals,  such  as  the  cat,  etc.,  are  here 
prohibited.  Beasts  which  have  bifid  or  cloven  hoofs,  such 
the  ox,  are  considered  as  proper  for  food,  and  therefore 
commended.  The  former  are  unclean,  /.  <?.,  unwholesome, 
affording  a  gross  nutriment,  often  the  parent  of  scorbutic 
and  scrofulous  disorders;  the  latter  clean,  /.  e.t  affording  a 
copious  and  wholesome  nutriment,  and  not  laying  the  foun- 
dation of  any  disease.  Ruminating  animals,  /.  *.,  those 

*  Moreh,  Ch.  23.  f  Dr.  Clark's  Comment,  on  Lev.  xi. 


184 

which  chew  the  cud,  concoct  their  food  better  than  the 
others  which  swallow  it  with  little  mastication,  and  there- 
fore the  flesh  contains  more  of  the  nutritious  juices,  and  is 
more  easy  of  digestion,  and  consequently,  of  assimilation 
to  the  solids  and  fluids  of  the  human  body.  On  this  ac- 
count they  are  termed  clean,  /.  <?.,  peculiarly  wholesome  and 
fitforfood.  .  .  .  On  the  same  ground  he  forbade  all  fish  that 
have  not  both  fins  and  scales,  such  as  the  conger,  eel,  etc., 
which  abound  in  gross  juices  and  fat,  which  very  few  stom- 
achs are  able  to  digest.  A  very  able  French  writer*  says, 
"One  of  the  most  distinguishing  traits  in  the  character  of 
Moses  as  a  legislator,  and  one  in  which  he  was  the  most 
imitated  by  those  who  in  after-ages  gave  laws  to  the  eastern 
world,  was  his  constant  attention  to  the  health  of  the  people. 
He  forbade  the  use  of  pork,  of  the  hare,  etc.,  of  fish  with- 
out scales,  whose  flesh  is  gross  and  oily,  and  all  kinds  of 
heavy  meat  as  the  fat  (the  suet)  of  the  bullock,  the  kid,  and 
the  lamb;  an  inhibition  supremely  wise  in  a  countrywhere  the 
excessive  heat,  relaxing  the  fibres  of  the  stomach,  rendered 
digestion  peculiarly  slow  and  difficult."  "The  flesh  of  the 
eel  and  some  other  fish,"  says  Larcher,  "thickened  the 
blood,  and  by  checking  the  perspiration,  excited  all  those 
maladies  connected  with  the  leprosy; "  and  even  goes  on  so 
far  as  to  suppose  that  this  was  the  reason  why  the  Egyptian 
priests  proscribed  certain  kinds  of  fish,\and  caused  them  to 
be  accounted  sacred,  the  better  to  keep  the  people  from  eating 
so  unwholesome  a  kind  of  food.  Plutarch  gives  a  similar 
reason  for  swine  being  held  in  general  abhorrence  by  them, 
notwithstanding  they  sacrificed  them  at  the  full  moon  to 
the  Moon  and  to  Bacchus.  "The  milk  of  the  sow,"  he  re- 
marks, "  occasioned  leprosy,  which  was  the  reason  why  the 
Egyptians  entertained  so  great  an  aversion  for  this  animal." 

*  M.  de  Pastoret,  Moise  considere,  etc.,  ch.  vii.,  p.  528. 


1 85 

Several  other  non-Jewish  as  well  as  Jewish  commentators 
express  similar  views  regarding  the  Mosaic  distinction  be- 
tween clean  and  unclean  animals ;  among  others,  Michaelis 
observes,  "  That  in  so  early  an  age  of  the  world  we  should  find 
a  systematic  division  of  quadrupeds,  so  excellent  as  never 
yet,  after  all  the  improvements  in  natural  history,  to  have 
become  obsolete,  but,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  still  considered 
as  useful  by  the  greatest  masters  of  the  science,  cannot  but 
be  looked  upon  as  truly  wonderful."* 

"It  shall  be  an  ordinance  forever  for  your  generations,  in  all  your 
dwelling-places,  that  ye  eat  not  any  fat  nor  blood." — Levit.  iii.  17. 

The  above  is  but  one  of  the  many  passages  in  the  books 
of  Moses  where  the  eating  of  fat  and  of  blood  is  forbidden; 
and  from  the  urgency  and  the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
command,  we  may  judge  that  Moses  desired  to  impress  it 
strongly  on  the  people's  mind  that  a  total  abstinence  from 
these  things  was  necessary,  as,  on  account  of  their  strong 
propensity  to  use  it,  they  were  prone  to  recur  to  the  error, 
and  because  the  injuries  resulting  therefrom  were  manifold. 
This  we  shall  find  to  be  the  case  especially  with  regard  to 
the  use  of  blood,  and  therefore  we  shall  treat  of  that  first. 

The  reasons  for  the  prohibition  of  eating  blood  may  be 
divided  into  moral  and  physical.  From  a  moral  point  of 
view  it  was  interdicted  :  ist,  to  prevent  idolatrous  practices. 
Blood  used  to  be  sacrificed  to  demons,  and  eaten  by  the 
offerers  in  order  to  seek  association  or  communion  with 
devils.  Maimonides  has  stated  at  large  the  superstitions 
of  the  Zabii  in  offering  blood  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  infernal 
objects  of  their  worship,  and  R.  Moses  Bar  Nachmanf  says, 
"  They  gathered  up  blood  from  the  devils,  their  idol-gods; 
and  then  came  to  themselves  and  ate  of  that  blood  with 

*  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  iii.,  art.  204. 
f  Comment,  on  Deut.  xii.  23. 


i86 

them  as  being  the  devils'  guests,  and  invited  to  eat  at  the 
table  of  demons,  and  so  were  joined  in  federal  society 
with  them;  and  by  this  kind  of  communion  they  were  able 
to  prophecy  and  foretell  things  to  come."  Horace*  gives  a 
satirical  description  of  similar  practices  among  his  country- 
men ;  and  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos  there  is  a 
"sanguinary  chapter,"  in  which  a  minute  description  is 
given  how  blood  is  to  be  offered  to  the  goddess  Chandica, 
and  the  result  produced  by  such  oblations  when  the  blood 
is  drawn  from  certain  animals,  and  even  from  persons.  2d. 
The  use  of  blood  was  forbidden  to  prevent  cruel  practices, 
such  as  eating  raw  flesh,  especially  of  living  animals.  Plu- 
tarch, in  his  discourse  of  eating  flesh,  informs  us  that  it  was 
customary  in  his  time  to  run  red-hot  spit  through  the  bodies 
of  live  swine,  and  to  stamp  upon  the  udders  of  sows  ready  to 
farrow,  to  make  their  flesh  more  delicious;  and  Herodotusf 
says  that  the  Scythians,  from  drinking  the  blood  of  their 
cattle,  proceeded  to  drink  the  blood  of  their  enemies ;  and 
this  is  done  even  now  among  the  New  Zealand  savages.  We 
read  also  of  a  people  east  of  Waday,  in  Africa,  whose  great- 
est luxury  was  feeding  on  raw  meat  cut  from  the  animal 
while  warm  and  full  of  blood  ;  and  the  celebrated  traveller 
Bruce  relates  with  minuteness  the  scene  which  he  wit- 
nessed near  Axum,  the  ancient  capital  of  Abyssinia,  when 
some  travellers  he  overtook  seized  the  cow  they  were  driving, 
threw  it  down,  cutting  steaks  from  it,  ate  them  raw,  and 
then  drove  on  the  poor  sufferer  before  them.  To  oppose 
such  horrible  cruelties,  it  was  wisely  ordained  by  Moses 
thit  the  Israelites  should  altogether  abstain  from  blood. 

But  the  use  of  this  article  was  forbidden  also  from  a 
physical  point  of  view,  and, 

i  st.  Blood  affords  a  very  gross  nutriment,  and   is  very 

*Sat.  vii.,Lib.  i.  f  Lib.  iv. 


.87 

difficult  of  digestion,  and  if  taken  warm  or  in  large  quanti- 
ties, may  prove  fatal,  particularly  bulls'  blood;  which  was 
given,  with  this  view,  to  criminals  by  the  Greeks  ;  and 
we  read  of  Themistocles  having  purposely  drunk  a  bowl  of 
ox-blood  during  a  sacrifice,  which  produced  his  death. 

2d.  Those  nations  which  feed  largely  on  flesh  without  a 
proper  admixture  of  vegetable  food  are  observed  to  be  remark- 
ably subject  to  scorbutic  diseases;  and  if  physicians  are 
right  in  ascribing  such  tendency  to  animal  food  in  general 
when  too  freely  eaten,  especially  in  hot  climates,  it  must  be 
acknowledged  that  the  grosser  and  more  indigestible  juices 
of  such  food  must  have  the  greatest  tendency  to  produce 
such  injurious  consequences  ;  and  blood,  as  the  grossest  of 
all,  be  the  most  inimical  to  health  and  soundness.  • 

We  now  come  to  consider  the  other  part  of  the  text,  the 
prohibition  of  fat.  And  here  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that 
the  Hebrew  word  Cheleb  cannot  be  understood  to  mean  all 
fat,  for  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  obtain  meat  from 
which  every  particle  of  fat  were  extracted,  just  as  it  would 
be  impossible  to  extract  all  the  blood,  except  it  be  done  by 
a  chemical  process,  and  it  cannot  for  a  moment  be  supposed 
that  this  was  the  intention  of  the  law.  The  prohibition 
has,  therefore,  been  interpreted,  and  universally  adopted  to 
mean,  that  which  is  properly  called  suet,  that  is,  the  harder 
and  less  fusible  fat  about  the  kidneys  and  the  loins,  while 
that  which  is  closely  intermixed  with  the  flesh,  and  forms, 
as  it  were,  part  of  it,  is  allowed.  And  this  appears  clearly 
from  Lev.  iii.,  where  the  kind  of  fat  which  is  to  be  offered 
on  the  altar  is  exactly  described,  while  the  other  part  was 
allowed  to  be  eaten.  The  reason  for  -the  prohibition  is 
simply,  as  Maimonides  says,  "that  such  fat  is  heavy,  hard 
to  digest,  and  generates  thick  and  cold  blood,  and  is,  there- 
fore, more  fit  to  be  burnt  than  to  be  eaten. 

"The  first  fruits  of  thy  land  shalt  thou  bring  to  the  house  of  the 


i88 

Lord  thy  God.  Thou  shalt  not  seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk," 
— Ex.  xxiii.  19  and  xxxiv.  26. 

,  This  text  is  repeated  in  its  entirety  as  is  seen  above,  and 
both  times  it  occurs  in  connection  with  the  observance  of 
the  three  festivals,  and  the  appearance  of  every  male 
Israelite  at  the  Temple.  The  second  half  of  the  text,  relat- 
ing to  the  seething  of  a  kid,  is  again  repeated  in  Deut.  xiv. 
2 1, and  there  it  appears  in  connection  with  things  forbidden 
to  eat. 

There  is  no  regular  division  or  classification  in  the 
Mosaic  laws  ;  they  appear  promiscuously  throughout  the 
Pentateuch  ;  and  the  connection  in  which  a  certain  com- 
mand is  found  with  preceding  or  following  passages  is,  there- 
fore, not  .always  sufficient  to  determine  its  meaning.  Still, 
we  need  not  quite  abandon  the  common  rule  of  interpreta- 
tion, that  u  the  sense  of  a  passage  of  Scripture  is  illustrated 
by  the  context,"  especially  when  we  find  passage  and  con- 
text exactly  repeated  ;  and  we  mean  to  apply  the  rule  here. 
Few,  if  any,  of  the  Mosaic  laws  have  been  more  perverted 
and  misunderstood,  and  carried  to  a  further  length  than 
this  one.  The  prohibition  of  seething  a  kid  has  been  inter- 
preted as  meaning  any  kind  of  meat ;  its  mother  s  milk,  to 
mean  the  milk  of  any  animal ;  from  seething  together  we 
have  gone  to  the  prohibition  of  eating  together ;  and  from 
eating  together  to  that  of  eating  any  meat  and  any  milk  within 
six  hours  of  each  other;  and  still  further,  even  to  keep 
utensils  and  dishes  altogether  separate  for  the  use  of  the 
one  and  of  the  other.  Now  let  us  see  what  the  commenta- 
tors say.  Our  great  Maimon,  following,  or  rather  averse  to 
opposing,  the  rabbinical  interpretation  says,*  "  Meat  eaten 
with  milk  appears  to  me  to  have  been  prohibited,  not 
merely  because  it  afforded  gross  nourishment,  but  also 
because  it  savored  of  idolatry;  some  idolaters  probably 
*  Moreh,  Ch.  xxiii, 


1 89 

doing  so  in  their  worship  or  at  their  festivals.  And  I  am 
the  more  inclined  to  this  opinion  from  observing  that  the 
law,  in  noticing  this  practice,  does  it  twice  immediately 
after  having  spoken  of  the  three  solemn  annual  feasts ;  as 
if  it  had  been  said :  When  ye  appear  before  me  on  your 
feasts,  ye  shall  not  cook  your  food  after  the  manner  of  the 
idolaters  who  are  accustomed  to  this  practice.  This  reason 
appears  to  me  of  great  weight,  although  I  have  not  yet  found 
it  in  the  Zabian  books.  In  another  chapter*  of  his  Moreh, 
when  treating  of  superstitious  practice,  at  planting  and 
grafting  trees,  the  same  author  says,  "  The  ancient  idolaters 
stated  in  their  books  that  it  was  a  practice  among  them  to 
suffer  certain  things  to  putrefy  or  rot,  and  then,  when  the 
sun  was  in  a  certain  position,  to  sprinkle,  accompanied  with 
particular  magical  rites,  about  the  fruit-trees  which  had 
been  planted,  imagining  that  if  this  was  done  by  the  man 
who  planted  it,  it  would  cause  it  to  flower  and  bear  fruit 
earlier  than  others  usually  do." 

And  that  which  Maimonides  did  not  find  in  the  Zabian 
books,  another  doctor  has  found  in  another  book  ;  and  the 
information  he  gives  us  on  the  subject  just  forms  the  connect- 
ing link  between  the  two  explanations  of  Maimonides  just 
quoted,  and  forms  one  whole  for  the  elucidation  of  our 
point.  This  scholarf  gives  the  following  extract  from  an 
ancient  Karaite  comment  on  the  Pentateuch,  which  at  once 
illustrates  these  magical  sprinklings  and  explains  one  of  the 
Mosaic  precepts.  "  It  was  a  custom  of  the  ancient  heathen, 
when  they  had  gathered  in  all  their  fruits,  to  take  a  kid  and 
boil  it  in  the  dam's  milk,  and  then  in  a  magical  way  to  go 
about  and  besprinkle  with  it  all  their  trees,  and  fields,  and 
gardens,  and  orchards  ;  thinking  by  this  means  they  should 


*  Chapter  xii. 

f  Dr.  Cudworth,  quoted  by  Dr.  Townley,  *'  Researches,"  p.  365. 


190 

make  them  fructify  and  bring  forth  fruit  again  more  abun- 
dantly the  following  year ;  wherefore  God  forbade  His 
people,  the  Jews,  at  the  time  of  their  ingathering,  to  use  any 
such  superstitious  or  idolatrous  rites."*  The  rabbis,  who 
base  upon  this  text  the  prohibition  of  eating  meat  and  milk 
together,  say  that  "Kid  includes  the  young  of  the  bovine 
kind,  of  sheep  and  of  goats,  unless  it  is  specified  as  a  kid 
of  a  goat."  But  Aben  Ezra,  a  more  reasonable  and  inde- 
pendent commentator,  says,  "This  is  not  so,  for  nothing  is 
called  kid  except  the  young  of  the  goats,  and  in  Arabic,  the 
word  has  the  same  significance,  and  is  never  applied  to  any 
other  species.  .  .  .  It  is  by  tradition  that  the  rabbis  received 
that  Israel  should  not  eat  meat  with  milk."  From  the  fore- 
going we  conclude  that,  as  the  first  part  of  the  text  relating 
to  the  bringing  of  the  first  fruits  to  Jerusalem  has  ceased 
for  us,  so  is  the  prohibition  spoken  of  in  the  second  part 
of  the  text  not  applicable  to  us,  since  idolatrous  practices 
are  virtually  abolished  from  our  midst,  and  the  regulations 
of  keeping  meat  and  milk  strictly  separate  are,  therefore, 
without  any  proper  foundation  in  the  Mosaic  code. 

"  If  the  place  which  the  Lord  thy  God  may  choose  to  put  His  name 
there,  be  too  far  from  thee,  then  mayest  thou  slaughter  of  thy  large  and 
small  cattle  which  the  Lord  has  given  thee,  as  I  have  commanded  thee,  and 
thou  mayest  eat  in  thy  gates  to  the  full  desireof  thy  soul." — Deut.  xii.2i. 

The  whole  fabric  of  rabbinical  ordinances  concerning  the 
manner  of  slaughtering  cattle  and  fowls,  on  which  volumes 
have  been  written,  is  based  solely  and  entirely  on  two  words 
(in  Hebrew)  of  the  text  here  quoted  ;  but  the  fabric  is  so 
frail  that  it  vanishes  by  the  very  touch.  These  two  words, 
rendered  in  English,  "  as  I  have  commanded  thee,"  are  taken 
as  a  basis,  and  the  inference  drawn  therefrom  is  this:  Since 
it  says,  "  Thou  shalt  slaughter  of  thy  cattle  ...  as  I  com- 

*  See  also  Brande,  art.  Ambarvalia. 


191 

mand  thee,''  we  ask,  Where  do  we  find  that  the  Lord  com- 
manded how  to  slaughter  cattle  ?  Answer — nowhere  in  the 
Scriptures :  ergo,  Moses  must  have  received  oral  instruc- 
tions concerning  the  manner  of  slaughtering.  Now,  this 
whole  reasoning  is  founded  on  the  presupposition  that  Mo- 
ses received  from  God  oral  instructions  besides  the  laws 
committed  to  writing;  and  that  the  words,  "  as  I  command 
thee,"  re'fer  to  the  manner  in  which  cattle  are  to  be  killed. 
But  neither  is  true.  That  additional  laws,  not  found  in  the 
Pentateuch,  were  revealed  to  Moses,(is  a  mere  supposition 
assumed  to  give  weight  to  all  rabbinical  institutions  and 
consider  them  as  divine  ;)and,  "as  I  commanded  thee," 
refers  not  to  the  manner  of  slaughtering,  but  to  a  passage 
in  the  preceding  paragraph  (verse  15  same  chapter),  where  it 
is  already  stated  that  cattle  not  intended  for  offerings  "  thou 
mayest  slaughter  and  eat  in  all  thy  gates  "  (not  thou  shalt 
slaughter),  and  need  not  be  brought  to  the  Temple.  The 
quintessence  of  our  text  then,  expressed  in  modern  style, 
would  be  this :  When  you  shall  be  settled  in  Palestine, 
where  the  Temple  will  not  be  near  to  you  as  is  now  the 
tabernacle,  then  you  may  slaughter  and  eat  of  your  cattle 
in  your  own  towns  as  you  like,  as  I  commanded  you  above 
(verse  15).  And  we  find  further  support  for  our  interpreta- 
tion in  the  text  following  the  one  we  are  describing,  viz., 
"  As  the  gazelle  and  hart  are  eaten,  so  mayest  thou  eat 
them."  This  explanatory  text  is  given  chiefly  to  say  that, 
even  as  the  gazelle  and  the  hart  are  never  brought  to  the 
Temple,  so  your  cattle  for  home  consumption  need  not  be 
brought  there.  At  the  same  time  we  may  draw  the  compari- 
son in  full,  and  learn  from  it  that  even  as  the  gazelle  and 
the  hart  are  not  killed  by  cutting  the  throat,  but  by  shooting 
(see  Lev.  xvii.  15),  so  your  cattle  at  home  may  be  killed  in 
any  manner  you  choose.  We  do  not  at  all  dispute  the  pro- 
priety of  the  Jewish  manner  of  slaughtering  and  examining 


192 

the  entrails,  when  considered  as  a  sanitary  regulation,  and 
from  the  consideration  of  preventing  cruelty  to  the  animal 
by  giving  it  as  little  pain  as  possible,  but  we  maintain  that 
there  is  no  basis  for  it  in  the  Mosaic  laws. 

"Thou  shalt  not  let  thy  cattle  gender  with  a  diverse  kind;  thou  shalt 
not  sow  thy  field  with  mingled  seed;  and  a  garment  of  mixed  texture 
(of  wool  and  linen)  shall  not  come  upon  thee." — Lev.  xix.  19. 

The  above  contains  three  prohibitions,  the  second  and 
third  of  which  are  repeated  with  some  variation  in  Deut. 
xxii.  9-11. 

We  pass  over  the  first  of  these  three  without  any  expla- 
nation because  of  the  delicacy  of  the  subject,  and  because 
what  is  to  be  said  of  the  other  two  will  serve  at  the  same 
time  to  explain  the  first.  But  there  is  another  kind  of  ad- 
mixture yet  to  be  mentioned,  which,  though  not  named  in 
the  text,  is  supposed  to  be  included  in  the  second,  and  that 
is,  the  grafting  of  trees. 

Among  the  ancients,  idolatry  was  much  mixed  up  with 
agriculture,  as  Maimonides  informs  us,  because  they,  in  their 
ignorance  of  the  relation  of  causes  and  effects,  finding  that 
the  growth  of  plants  depended  much  on  the  sun  and  moon, 
believed  that  these  and  other  orbs  were  intelligent  beings 
who,  at  pleasure,  caused  the  fruitfulness  or  barrenness  of 
the  land,  and  therefore  ought  to  be  worshipped.  From  this 
ill-grounded  belief  resulted  all  sorts  of  superstitious  prac- 
tices, some  most  ridiculous  and  abominable,  and  for  which 
it  is  often  very  difficult  or  impossible  to  account.  One  of 
these  superstitious  ideas  was  the  mixture  of  seeds,  of  ani- 
mals, and  the  materials  for  garments,  in  order  thereby  to 
represent  the  different  conjunctions  of  the  planets.  In 
Deut.  xxii.  9,  a  mixture  of  seed  in  planting  a  vineyard  is 
especially  forbidden,  and  we  find  that  in  the  books  of  the 
Zabii  it  is  stated  that  they  were  accustomed  to  sow  barley 


193 

and  dried  grapes  together,  and  this  was  done  at  a  particular 
time,  when  the  planets  were  in  a  certain  position,  and,  by 
so  doing,  they  signified,  it  is  said,  that  their  vineyards  were 
consecrated  to  Ceres  and  Bacchus,  and  were  recommended 
to  their  protection.  Smoke  was  also  raised  on  such  occa- 
sions, and  certain  circles  made  by  the  planter,  according  to 
the  number  of  the  planets  whose  influence  was  invoked. 
We  read  of  such  practices  even  in  modern  times,  and  a  re- 
liable author  assures  us  that,  even  at  the  present  day,  in 
Yorkshire,  England,  it  is  customary  to  raise  smoke  in  the 
fields  when  they  finish  ploughing  ;  and  this  is  what  they  call 
"Burning  out  the  witch."  Similar  ceremonies  were  per- 
formed at  the  grafting  of  trees,  such  as  olives  into  citrons, 
and  not  only  such  idle  ceremonies,  but  some  very  immoral 
and  indecent  practices  were  in  use  on  such  occasions.  It 
was  also  required  that  those  who  were  engaged  in  such 
worship,  especially  their  priests,  should  wear  garments  made 
of  a  texture  of  wool  and  linen.  Therefore  Israel  were  for- 
bidden to  make  any  such  heterogeneous  mixtures  or  follow 
such  practices,  which  would  lessen  their  dependence  and 
trust  in  God,  or  draw  them  into  immorality  and  indecency. 

"  A  woman  shall  not  wear  a  man's  apparel,  neither  shall  a  man  put 
on  a  woman's  garment ;  for  all  who  do  so  are  an  abomination  to  the 
Lord  thy  God." — Deut.  xxii.  5. 

This  exchange  of  garments  between  male  and  female 
would  seem  an  innocent  and  harmless  thing,  and  unless  we 
penetrate  into  its  meaning  and  find  the  ground  upon  which 
it  is  based,  it  would  be  difficult  to  understand  why  it  should 
be  sinful  to  do  so  ;  but  an  insight  into  the  matter  will  soon 
convince  us  how  suitable  such  a  prohibition  was  at  the  time 
when  it  was  announced,  though  it  can  be  hardly  of  any 
weight  or  applicability  to  our  time.  Like  the  preceding 
command  which  we  have  explained,  this  also  was  ordained 


194 

to  prevent  idolatrous  practices;  for,  Maimonides  informs  us, 
that  it  was  a  custom  among  the  ancient  heathen,  when  a 
man  presented  himself  before  the  star  Venus,  that  he  should 
wear  the  colored  dress  of  a  woman,  and  when  a  woman 
adored  the  planet  Mars,  she  was  to  appear  in  armor.  "  Be- 
sides," says  our  author,  "  such  exchanges  would  have  a  ten- 
dency to  excite  to  licentiousness  and  unchastity.  From 
another  author*  we  make  the  following  extracts,  which  will 
further  elucidate  the  subject.  "  As  the  heathens  made  such 
a  multiplicity  of  gods  out  of  one  and  the  same  person,  so, 
likewise,  did  they  confound  their  sexes,  making  the  same 
deity  sometimes  a  god,  sometimes  a  goddess,  or  rather  all 
of  them  of  both  sexes.  Hence  it  is  that  the  Greeks  used 
the  word  Theos  for  both  gods  and  goddesses ;  and  after 
the  same  manner  was  the  word  Deus  used  by  the  Romans. 
Hence  it  was  that  the  Cyprians  represented  their  Venus 
with  a  beard,  having  a  sceptre  in  her  hand,  dressed  as  a 
woman,  but  masculine  in  her  stature  and  name,  Aphroditos; 
and  the  statue  the  Syrians  worshipped  in  the  temple  of  He- 
liopolis,  was  that  of  a  woman  clothed  like  a  man.  So  at 
Rome  they  had  a  Fortuna  Mascula  and  Virilis,  and  a  For- 
tuna  Barbata.  The  Gentiles,  to  signify  this  mystery  of 
community  of  sexes  in  their  deities,  counterfeited  them- 
selves to  be  masculine-feminine  in  their  worshipping  them. 
They  thought  to  please  their  gods  by  presenting  themselves 
before  them  as  like  them  as  they  could;  and  by  wearing  a 
habit  different  from  their  sex,  to  recommend  themselves  to 
such  deities  as  they  supposed  of  doubtful,  or  rather  of  both 
sexes.  This  was  practised  especially  in  the  worship  of 
Venus.  Their  women  thought  they  could  not  appear  more 
acceptable  in  the  presence  of  the  god  of  war  than  dressed 
in  arms,  and  their  men,  in  the  presence  of  the  goddess  of  love, 

*  Young,  on  Idolatrous  Corruptions  in  Religion,  vol.  i.,  pp.  97-105. 


than  in  the  habit  proper  to  the  soft  and  tender  sex ;  and  so 
Philocorus,  an  old  Greek  author,  tells  us  of  the  Asiatics, 
that  when  they  sacrificed  to  their  Venus,  "  the  men  were 
dressed  in  women's  apparel,  and  the  women  in  men's,  to 
denote  that  she  was  esteemed  by  them  both  male  and 
female."  And  we  find  that  the  same  practices  prevailed 
among  the  Assyrians,  the  Africans,  the  Phoenicians,  and 
other  nations. 

"Ye  shall  not  round  the  corners  of  your  heads,  nor  mar  (destroy)  the 
corners  of  your  beard." — Lev.  xix.  27. 

Of  this  prohibition  Maimonides  says  simply  that  it  was 
so  ordained  "  because  the  priests  among  the  idolaters  were 
accustomed  thus  to  poll  and  shave  themselves."  From  other 
authors  we  cull  the  following  information  on  this  subject. 
"  The  Hebrew  word  which  we  translate  corners  signifies 
also  the  end  or  extremities  of  anything ;  and  the  meaning 
is,  they  were  not  to  cut  their  hair  equal  behind  and  before, 
as  the  worshippers  of  the  stars  and  the  planets,  particularly 
the  Arabians  did;  for  this  made  their  head  have  the  form 
of  a  hemisphere.  Herodotus  observes  that  the  Arabs  shave 
or  cut  their  hair  round  in  honor  of  Bacchus,  who,  they  say, 
had  his  hair  cut  in  this  way.  He  says  also  that  the  Macians, 
a  people  of  Lybia,  cut  their  hair  round,  so  as  to  leave  a  tuft 
on  the  top  of  the  head.  In  this  manner  the  Chinese  cut 
their  hair  even  to  the  present  day.  The  hair  was  much 
used  in  divination  among  the  Greeks ;  and  particularly 
about  the  time  of  the  giving  of  the  Law,  as  this  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  era  of  the  Trojan  war.  We  learn  from 
Homer,  "  that  it  was  customary  for  parents  to  dedicate  the 
hair  of  their  children  to  some  god,  which,  when  they  came 
to  manhood,  they  cut  off  and  consecrated  to  the  deity. 
Achilles,  at  the  funeral  of  Patroclus,  cut  off  his  golden  locks 
which  his  father  had  dedicated  to  the  river-god  Sperchius, 


196 

and  threw  them  into  the  flood."    Pope,  in  his  translation  of 
'%  The  Iliad,"  gives  us  the  following  interesting  version. 

But  great  Achilles  stands  apart  in  prayer, 

And  from  his  head  divides  the  yellow  hair, 

Those  curling  locks  which  from  his  youth  he  vow'd, 

And  sacred  grew  to  Sperchius'  honored  flood. 

Then  sighing,  to  the  deep  his  locks  he  cast, 

And  roll'd  his  eyes  around  the  watery  waste. 

Sperchius  !  whose  waves,  in  many  errors  lost, 

Delightful  roll  along  my  native  coast  ! 

To  whom  we  vainly  vow'd  at  our  return, 

These  locks  to  fall  and  hecatombs  to  burn — 

So  vow'd  my  father,  but  he  vow'd  in  vain  ; 

No  more  Achilles  sees  his  native  plain  ; 

In  that  vain  hope,  these  hairs  no  longer  grow  ; 

Patroclus  bears  them  to  the  shades  below. 

From  Virgil  we  learn  that  the  topmost  lock  of  hair  was 
dedicated  to  the  infernal  gods ;  and  Dryden  gives  us  the 
following  lines  in  his  translation  of  "  The  ^Eneid." 

The  sisters  had  not  cut  the  topmost  hair, 
Which  Proserpine  and  they  can  only  know, 
Nor  made  her  sacred  to  the  shades  below — 

This  offering  to  the  infernal  gods  I  bear, 
Thus  while  she  spoke  she  cut  the  fatal  hair. 

This  offering  of  the  hair  leads  us  naturally  to  the  con- 
sideration of  a  similar  offering  required  of  the  Nazarite  at 
the  expiration  of  his  time  of  abstinence,  and  as  prescribed 
in  the  following  text. 

"The  Nazarite  shall  shave  his  consecrated  head  at  the  entrance  of 
the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation;  and  he  shall  take  the  hair  of  his 
consecrated  head,  and  put  it  on  the  fire  which  is  under  the  peace 
offering." — Num.  vi.  18. 

A  perusal  of  the  chapter  from  which  this  text  is  quoted 
will  show  that  a  Nazarite  was  a  person  who  by  a  voluntary 


i97 

vow  bound  him  or  herself  to  abstain  for  some  time  from 
strong  drink  and  whatever  comes  from  the  vine.  He  was 
not  allowed  to  shave  or  cut  his  hair,  nor  to  touch  a  dead 
body,  even  of  one  of  his  nearest  relations.  When  the  time 
of  his  abstinence  expired,  he  was  to  bring  an  offering  to  the 
Temple,  and  there  cut  off  his  hair,  which  he  placed  on  the 
fire  under  the  burnt-offering. 

Maimonides,  in  commenting  on  this  precept,  leaves  the 
ceremony  to  be  performed  with  the  hair  entirely  out  of  con- 
sideration ;  and  looks  upon  the  nazarean  vow  merely  as  a 
temperance  pledge.  The  cause  and  reason  of  the  precepts 
relating  to  the  Nazarite,  that  is,  of  abstinence  from  wine, 
says  he,  is  evident;  for  wine  has  in  many  instances  been 
the  occasion  of  death  to  multitudes,  and  many  strong  men 
have  been  slain  by  it.  It  was  the  peculiarity  of  the  Nazar- 
ite to  abstain  from  every  kind  of  drink  made  from  the  vine, 
that  he  might  be  thereby  advanced  to  greater  honor,  and 
learn  to  be  content  with  the  things  that  were  necessary. 
He,  therefore,  who  thus  abstained,  was  accounted  holy,  and 
placed  in  equal  dignity  with  the  high-priest  as  to  sanctity, 
not  being  allowed  to  pollute  himself  for  his  deceased  father 
or  mother.  Another  commentator*  says:  ''The  direc- 
tions which  God  here  gives  about  it  (the  hair),  are  mani- 
festly opposite  to  the  ways  of  the  Gentiles.  For  the  Na- 
zarites  are  here  directed  to  cut  their  hair  at  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle,  where  it  was  also  to  be  burnt;  whereas  the 
Gentiles  hung  their  hair,  when  they  had  cut  it,  upon  trees 
or  consecrated  it  to  rivers,  or  laid  it  up  in  their  temples, 
there  to  be  preserved.  The  Hebrew  Nazarites  also  are  re- 
quired to  offer  various  sorts  of  sacrifices  when  they  cut  their 
hair,  of  which  we  rarely  read  ?nything  among  the  Gentiles, 
and  all  the  time  of  their  separation  were  to  drink  no  wine, 

*  Spencer,  De  Leg.  Heb. 


198 

nor  eat  grapes,  etc.,  which  was  not  known  among  the  hea- 
then. From  whence  it  is,  one  may  think,  that  they  are  so 
often  put  in  mind  of  the  Lord,  in  this  law  of  the  Nazarites, 
...  to  put  them  in  mind,  that,  though  they  used  which  was 
common  to  other  nations,  yet  it  was  in  honor  of  the  Lord 
only,  whom  they  acknowledged  to  be  the  author  of  health, 
and  strength,  and  growth."  It  is  thus  evident  from  this 
institution,  as  it  is  from  various  others,  that  they  were 
retained  in  accommodation  to  the  long  acquired  habits  of 
the  people ;  that  the  Israelites  adhered  to  some  of  the 
practices  of  other  nations,  but  were  at  the  same  time  re- 
quired in  all  their  doings  to  acknowledge  the  Almighty  as 
their  God  and  Ruler. 

' '  There  shall  not  be  found  among  you  any  one  who  causes  his  son 
or  his  daughter  to  pass  through  the  fire,  or  who  useth  divination  or  an 
observer  of  times,  or  an  enchanter,  or  a  sorcerer,  or  a  charmer,  or  a 
consulter  with  familiar  spirits,  or  a  wizard,  or  one  who  enquireth  of  the 
dead.' — Deut.  xviii.  10-11. 

We  have  selected  the  above  text  from  the  many  which 
contain  similar  prohibitions,  because  in  this  one  we  find 
nearly  the  whole  nomenclature  of  the  superstitious  practices 
in  which  the  heathen  indulged.  As  we  have  already  said  so 
much  in  the  preceding  articles  about  these  idolatrous  habits, 
and,  as  every  enlightened  person  must  be  convinced,  not 
only  of  the  folly,  but  also  of  the  pernicious  influence  re- 
sulting from  such  frivolous  and  irrational  acts,  it  might  be 
thought  superfluous  to  dwell  here  upon  or  to  go  into  an  expla- 
nation of  the  diverse  practices  mentioned  in  our  text.  Nor 
do  we  intend  to  treat  of  each  of  them  separately,  which 
would  be  a  tedious  discussion  on  account  of  the  sameness 
which  prevails  in  them,  and  because  we  could  not  devote 
sufficient  space  to  it.  But  although  idolatry  is  said  to  be 
exterminated  from  civilized  society,  in  what  is  called  our 
enlightened  age,  and  that  for  this  reason  those  Mosaic  com- 


199 

mands  which  have  particular  reference  to  idolatry  have 
really  lost  their  binding  force  on  us,  yet  we  find  many  traces 
of  it  still  lingering  even  among  intelligent  and  sensible  peo- 
ple ;  and  the  superstitions  of  lucky  days,  of  good  and  bad 
omens,  of  fortune-telling,  spiritualism,  and  the  like,  have 
yet  firm  hold  on  the  minds  of  many.  And  if  we  look  into 
the  Shulchan  Aruch — which  is  still  considered  by  many  of 
our  people  as  the  guide  of  our  religion — and  we  find  there 
certain  rules  prescribed  concerning  the  use  of  Amulets 
(Kemia)  or  herbs  worn  on  the  neck,  some  of  which  are  said 
to  be  allowed,  and  others  forbidden  to  be  carried  on  the 
Sabbath  outside  of  the  city  limits,  according  as  they  have  been 
prepared  by  an  accredited  person,  and  have  proved  to  pos- 
sess the  virtue  of  healing  or  not ;  and  further,  that  it  is 
allowed  to  wear  as  a  remedy  such  charms  as  the  egg  of  a 
locust,  the  tooth  of  a  fox,  or  the  nail  on  which  a  person  has 
been  hanged,  and  that  the  prohibition  of  "  following  the 
ways  of  the  Amorites  "  is  not  applicable  to  these  things, 
then  we  have  indeed  reason  to  say  that  all  traces  of  idolatry 
are  not  yet  banished  from  among  us.  Therefore,  though  it 
will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  upon  the  modus  operandi  of  these 
sorcerers,  enchanters,  necromancers,  sooth-sayers,  charmers, 
wizards,  pythonists,  and  whatever  else  they  may  be  called,  it 
will  not  be  amiss  here  to  say  a  few  words,  not  of  explana- 
tion, but  rather  of  exhortation,  against  these  barbarous  prac- 
tices which  still  prevail  among  us,  and  which  every  sensible 
person  ought  to  banish  from  his  mind  and  oppose  with  all 
his  power  in  the  midst  of  those  under  his  control  or  influ- 
ence. We  ought  to  oppose  these  things  for  two  reasons  : 
because  they  lessen  our  trust  in  God,  and  our  submission  to 
His  providential  decrees;  and  because  they  foster  ignorance 
and  superstition,  which  are  the  great  drawbacks  to  civiliza- 
tion and  the  spread  of  true  religion.  When  people  were  so 
enveloped  in  darkness'that  they  could  form  no  idea  of  an 


200 

invisible  God,  they  looked  upon  the  planets  as  divinities, 
prayed  to  them  and  invoked  their  assistance,  and  practised 
many  things  which  must  now  appear  very  foolish  and  ridi- 
culous. These  performances  may  all  be  classed  under  three 
heads,  namely,  acts  done  to  avert  evil,  to  procure  favor  of 
blessing,  and  to  foretell  events  ;  and  all  what  is  done,  not 
in  a  natural  way,  to  accomplish  either  of  these  things,  or 
what  is  done  in  the  name  of  religion  and  for  which  we  can 
give  no  valid  reason  why  it  should  be  done,  is  contrary  to  the 
spirit  of  our  religion.  And,  therefore,  such  ideas  as  choosing 
a  day  as  lucky  for  the  undertaking  of  business,  or  of  a  voyage, 
observing  the  baying  or  yelping  of  a  dog  at  night  as  the  pre- 
cursor of  death  ;  avoiding  thirteen  persons  to  sit  down  to 
table,  and  a  thousand  such  unmentionable  follies,  should  be 
strenuously  opposed  as  unbecoming  all  who  lay  any  claim  to 
enlightenment.  |So  also  the  barbarous  custom  of  tearing 
one's  garments,  and  letting  the  hair  and  beard  grow  in  case 
of  death  in  the  family;  burning  a  lamp,  called  the  perpetual 
light,  in  expectation  that  the  soul  of  the  departed  may  be 
affected  by  it,  which  may  be  a  remnant  of  the  vestal  fires  of 
the  Romans,  or  the  perpetual  lamps  placed  in  sepulchres, 
some  of  which  are  said  to  have  been  found  burning  after 
the  lapse  of  several  ages  ;  all  these  and  similar  practices 
savor  of  idolatry,  and  should  be  disowned  by  all  rational 
men.  And,  as  a  proof  that  no  idea  of  true  religion  is  con- 
nected with  such  acts,  but  that  they  proceed  from  weak- 
mindedness,  we  may  mention  the  fact  that  the  illiterate,  and 
those  who  show  the  greatest  indifference  for  true  religion, 
are  generally  very  strict  in  the  observance  of  these  irreligious 
acts.  Maimonides,  in  his  Moreh,  repeats  again  and  again 
that  the  scope  of  the  whole  law,  and  the  very  hinge  on 
which  it  turns,  is  this,  that  idolatry  may  be  banished  from 
among  us,  the  very  name  of  it  be  blotted  out,  and  no  power 
of  assisting  or  injuring  mankind  be  attributed  to  things 
supernatural. 


201 

"Ye  shall  kindle  no  fire  in  any  of  your  habitations  on  the  Sabbath- 
day." — Ex.  xxxv.  3. 

We  proposed  to  discuss  especially  such  commands  as 
are  open  to  different  interpretations,  and  the  one  contained 
in  the  above  text,  free  of  all  ambiguity  though  it  may  ap- 
pear, has  yet  been  the  subject  of  much  dispute  among  the 
rabbis,  who  seem  to  be  almost  agreed,  however,  on  this 
point,  that  the  text  does  not  mean  at  all  what  its  plain  word- 
ing implies;  that  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  real  kindling 
of  fire,  but  means  something  quite  different.  They  set  out 
by  arguing  in  this  way.  In  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  in 
several  other  portions  of  the  Mosaic  code,  we  find  the  pro- 
hibition of  performing  any  labor  on  the  Sabbath.  But  then, 
what  is  labor?  What  particular  actions  are  to  be  regarded 
as  such  ?  Since  the  law  is  silent  on  the  subject,  and  does 
not  enlighten  us  by  giving  any  definition  as  to  what  is  to  be 
considered  as  labor,  nor  to  enumerate  any  particular  acts, 
it  is  assumed  that  the  Sabbath  ordinance  is  repeated  here, 
at  the  head  of  a  chapter  wherein  the  necessaries  of  the  tab- 
ernacle are  mentioned,  to  teach  us  that  just  such  kind  of 
work  as  was  done  in  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle,  these 
same  occupations  are  to  be  looked  upon  as  labor  forbidden 
on  the  Sabbath.  Still  the  question  remains,  What  are  exactly 
the  manipulations  forbidden?  The  orders  for  making  the 
tabernacle  are  generally  given  in  the  words,  "  Thou  shalt 
make"  this  and  that ;  the  particular  names  of  actual  labor 
mentioned  scarcely  exceed  half  a  dozen,  which  are  engrav- 
ing, casting,  filling,  and  setting  of  precious  stones,  spinning, 
weaving,  and  dyeing.  Of  the  common  occupations  in  build- 
ing, nothing  is  said;  still  less  is  anything  of  field  labor  men- 
tioned, and  yet  it  could  not  be  supposed  that  all  such  labor 
would  be  allowed.  Therefore,  the  rabbis  took  upon  them- 
selves to  say  that  all  such  occupations  which  were  mediately 
or  immediately  necessary  for  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle 


2O2 


are  forbidden.  Thus  hunting  and  flaying,  for  instance,  were 
necessary  to  procure  skins  for  covering  the  tabernacle;  and 
it  was  further  necessary  to  make  fires  for  preparing  the 
colors  for  dyeing  those  skins;  therefore,  kindling  a  fire,  like 
hunting  and  flaying  is  to  be  considered  labor  forbidden  on 
the  Sabbath.  If  so,  then,  that  kindling  fire  is  to  be  consid- 
ered labor,  and  as  such  is  included  in  the  general  list  of 
forbidden  occupations,  why  is  this  one  specified  more  than 
any  other  ?  is  the  question  asked.  This  interrogation  is 
variously  answered  ;  but  the  final  conclusion  arrived  at  is, 
that  the  command  of  Ex.  xxxv.  3  does  not  mean  a  prohi- 
bition of  kindling,  not  the  ignition  of  some  combustible 
matter,  but  it  implies  a  prohibition  to  the  Sanhedrin  against 
holding  their  tribunals  on  the  Sabbath,  and  especially 
against  executing  capital  punishments,  one  of  which  was 
burning.  This  exposition  of  the  text  is  laid  down  in  an 
ancient  rabbinical  work  called  Mechiltah  ;  the  same  expla- 
nation is  given  in  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  ;  and  appears  as 
the  adopted  authoritative  opinion.* 

But  we  may  be  excused  for  deviating  from  the  opinion 
given  by  the  rabbis,  and  believing  that,  when  the  Law  speaks 
of  kindling  fire,  it  means  actual  fire  that  burns,  and  not 
judicial  debates  and  verdicts ;  and  when  it  says  "  in  all  your 
habitations,"  it  means  wherever  Israelites  dwell,  not  only  in 
the  judicial  courts.  Assuming,  then,  that  the  Scripture 
means  just  what  it  says ;  and  basing  upon  the  principle 
that  there  must  be  a  reason  for  every  command  laid  down, 
we  ask,  Why  should  kindling  fire  on  the  Sabbath  be  forbid- 
den ?  Why,  when  we  feel  cold  and  uncomfortable  on  the 
Sabbath,  should  it  be  criminal  to  start  a  fire  ;  or,  if  we  need 
light,  should  it  be  sinful  to  light  a  lamp  ?  The  solution  to 
these  questions  may  be  easily  found  when  we  bear  in  mind 

*  See  Sepher  Hachinuch  in  its  commentary  on  this  command. 


the  repeated  statement  of  our  favorite  author  that,  "  the 
very  foundation  on  which  our  whole  law  rests  is,  that  it  is 
designed  to  eradicate  idolatry,"  and  then  find  the  relation 
between  idolatrous  worship  and  the  making  of  fire.  It  is 
well  known  that  among  the  many  superstitious  practices  of 
the  ancients  was  the  worship  of  fire.  This  was  especially 
the  case  among  the  Persians,  and  the  Romans  and  Greeks 
followed  the  example.  In  the  Mosaic  laws  we  find  a  strict 
prohibition  against  passing  children  through  the  fire,  and 
that  the  custom  obtained  among  the  early  inhabitants  of 
Palestine.  And  so  deeply  rooted  seems  this  idea  to  have 
been  in  the  people's  minds,  that  it  continued  through  many 
ages,  and  is  not  exterminated  even  at  the  present  day.  Sol- 
omon built  a  temple  to  Moloch  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
and  Menasseh,  long  afterwards,  imitated  the  impiety  by 
making  his  son  pass  through  a  fire  kindled  in  honor  of  this 
most  abominable  idol.  Virgil,  Horace,  Theodoret,  and 
other  famous  authors  speak  of  it  as  existing  in  their  time  ; 
and  Maimonides  informs  us  that  in  his  day  it  was  a  custom 
for  nurses  to  take  new-born  children  and  wave  them  to  and 
fro  in  the  smoke  of  certain  herbs,  which  was,  no  doubt,  says 
he,  a  relic  of  this  passing  through  the  fire.  From  other 
authors*  we  learn  that  it  was  a  heathenish  custom  on  new- 
moon  days  to  make  fire  before  the  shops  and  houses  and  leap 
over  them  or  between  them,  imagining  that  they  who  did  so 
would  thereby  be  purified  and  their  evils  burnt  away,  and 
that  the  Council  of  Trullo,  held  692  C.E.,  condemned  this 
practice;  and  that  "  on  St.  John  Baptist's  eve,  the  vulgar  were 
wont  to  make  fires  for  the  whole  night,  and  leap  over  them 
and  draw  lots,  and  divine  about  their  good  and  evil  for- 
tune;" also  "  that  there  was  a  feast  called  Amphidromia,  kept 

*  Young's  Historical  Dissertation  on  Idolatrous  Corruptions  in  Reli- 
gion, vol.  i.,  p.  117,  and  Brand's  Observations  on  Popular  Antiquities, 
chap,  xxvii. 


204 

by  private  families  at  Athens  on  the  fifth  day  after  the  birth 
of  a  child,  when  it  was  the  custom  for  the  gossips  to  run 
round  the  fire  with  the  infant  in  their  arms  ;  and  then,  hav- 
ing delivered  it  to  the  nurse,  they  were  entertained  with  feast- 
ing and  dancing."  Dr.  Moresin*  states  that  he  was  an 
eye-witness  of  a  remarkable  custom  which  then  existed  in 
Scotland,  to  take  a  new-baptized  infant  and  swing  it  three 
or  four  times  over  a  flame,  saying  and  repeating  thrice  : 
"Let  the  flame  consume  thee  now  or  never."  And  finally, 
Mr.  Borlase,  in  his  account  of  Cornwall,  says,  "  The  Cornists 
make  bonfires  in  every  village  on  the  eve  of  St.  John  Bap- 
tist's and  St.  Peter's  days,  which  I  take  to  be  the  remains 
of  part  of  the  Druid  superstition."  It  appears,  then,  that 
the  making  of  fires  for  idolatrous  purposes  has  ever  con- 
tinued ;  that  the  origin  of  it  is  to  be  traced  back  to  the 
earliest  ages  of  history  ;  that  even  some  of  Israel's  kings 
yielded  to  this  gross  error,  and  it  is  supposed  that,  in  refer- 
ence to  this  false  worship,  the  prophet  said  in  the  name  of 
God,  "  Your  new-moon  days  and  your  festivals  my  soul 
hateth." 

The  passage  in  Numb.  xv.  32-36  may  serve  also  to  illus- 
trate our  subject,  as  it  appears  to  stand  in  connection  with 
the  prohibition  in  our  leading  text.f  A  man  was  found 
gathering  sticks  on  the  Sabbath,  and,  on  being  brought  to 
Moses  for  judgment,  the  severe  punishment  of  stoning  to 
death  was  pronounced  upon  him.  The  probability  is,  that 
he  was  punished,  not  for  Sabbath-breaking,  but  because  this 
gathering  of  sticks  was  a  preparatory  act  to  the  building  of 
a  wood-pile  for  an  idolatrous  purpose.  In  Jeremiah  vii.  18, 
the  Israelites  are  reproached  with  "  collecting  wood  and 

*  The  Origin  and  Increase  of  Depravity  in  Religion, 
f  Herz  Homberg  in  his  comm.  called  Hacarem,  in  loco,  takes  the 
same  view. 


205 

kindling  fire,  and  making  cakes  for  the  queen  of  heaven." 
As  all  sorts  of  superstitious  ideas  were  connected  with  idol- 
atrous worship,  it  may  be  that  the  combustibles  to  be  used  for 
such  bonfires  were  required  to  be  gathered  from  abroad,  not 
from  the  regular  supply  of  wood  for  home-consumption,  or 
it  may  be  that  a  particular  kind  of  wood,  not  always  at  hand, 
was  desired  for  the  purpose. 

From  the  foregoing  we  conclude,  then,  that  the  command 
"Ye  shall  kindle  no  fire  in  any  of  your  habitations  on  the 
Sabbath-day,"  was  given  with  the  same  intention  as  most  of 
the  Mosaic  laws  were  instituted,  viz.,  to  abolish  idolatry; 
and  that  the  lighting  of  fire,  in  our  own  houses  or  elsewhere, 
for  comfort,  for  use,  or  for  any  enjoyment,  is  no  transgres- 
sion of  this  command. 

"  The  Lord  called  unto  Moses  and  spoke  to  him  from  the  tent  of  the 
congregation,  saying:  Speak  to  the  children  of  Israel  and  say  to  them, 
if  any  person  among  you  wish  to  bring  to  the  Lord  an  offering  of  any 
of  the  beasts,  ye  shall  bring  your  offerings  of  the  large  cattle  or  of  the 
small  cattle."— Lev.  i.  1-2. 

Thus  begins  the  book  of  Leviticus,  the  first  ten  chapters 
of  which  are  devoted  to  directions  concerning  sacrifices  and 
Temple  service.  That  the  Mosaic  laws  were  established 
for  the  great  purpose  of  abolishing  idolatry  from  among  the 
Israelites,  that  many  of  the  ancient  practices  to  which  the 
people  were  addicted  were,  with  some  modifications,  retained 
for  the  sake  of  satisfying  their  cravings  ;  and  that  it  was  the 
intention  of  the  legislator  to  bring  them  gradually  to  a  bet- 
ter and  more  rational  worship,  is  apparent  from  none  more 
than  from  the  institution  of  sacrifices.  In  fact,  this  cannot 
be  properly  called  a  Mosaic  institution,  but  a  Mosaic  modi- 
fication of  an  institution  which  existed  ever  since  man  began 
to  live  on  earth.  That  the  Jewish  sacrifices  were  not  de- 
sired, but  merely  tolerated,  is  evident — 

First :  From  the  opening  of  the  book  of  Leviticus,  where 


2O6 

it  says,  "  if  any  person  wish  to  bring  an  offering."*  It  does 
not  say,  "  Ye  shall  bring  offerings,"  but  in  case  one  wished 
to  bring  a  sacrifice,  he  is  required  to  bring  his  offering  to 
God's  temple  and  nowhere  else,  and  particular  directions 
are  given  as  to  the  manner  of  its  manipulations. 

Second  :  It  appears  more  strongly  from  Lev.  xvii.  1-7, 
where  it  is  ordained  that  whosoever  shall  kill  an  ox  or  goat 
or  lamb  in  or  out  of  the  camp,  and  not  bring  it  to  the  taber- 
nacle, shall  be  cut  off  from  among  his  people.  "  To  the 
end  that  the  children  of  Israel  may  bring  their  sacrifices 
which  they  offer  in  the  open  field,  that  they  may  bring 
them  to  the  Lord  .  .  .  and  they  shall  no  more  offer  their 
sacrifices  to  the  satyrs."  Here  it  is  plainly  stated  that  they 
are  required  to  bring  their  offerings  to  God,  in  order  to  keep 
them  from  offering  to  devils. 

Third :  We  find  various  passages  in  the  Prophets  and  in 
the  Psalms,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  sacrifices  were 
not  considered  an  important  institution,  nor  a  permanent 
one,  but  that  moral  worth  in  man  was  far  more  desirable 
than  offerings.  "  Has  the  Lord  as  much  delight  in  burnt- 
offerings  and  sacrifices  as  in  obeying  the  voice  of  the  Lord  ?  " 
"Behold,  to  obey  is  better  than  sacrifice,  and  to  hearken 
better  than  the  fat  of  rams."f  "  To  what  purpose  is  the  mul- 
titude of  .your  sacrifices  to  me,"  says  the  Lord.J  "  I  will 
not  reprove  thee  for  thy  sacrifices,  or  thy  burnt-offerings,  to 
have  been  continually  before  me.  I  will  take  no  bullock 
out  of  thy  house,  nor  he-goats  from  thy  folds. "§  "  Will  the 
Lord  be  pleased  with  thousands  of  rams,  or  with  ten  thou- 
sand rivers  of  oil  ?  "  |  "  I  spoke  not  to  your  fathers,  nor 
commanded  them  on  the  day  that  I  brought  them  out  of 

*  It  is  so  interpreted  by  Kimchi,  followed  by  Mendelssohn,  and  so 
commented  upon  by  Hertz  Wesseley. 

f  i  Sam.  xv.  23.  §  Ps.  1.  7-8. 

\  Isa.  i.  iif  |  Micah  iv.  7, 


207 

the  land  of  Egypt,  concerning  burnt-offerings  or  sacrifices, 
but  this  thing  I  commanded  them,  saying,  '  Obey  my  voice 
and  I  will  be  your  God  and  ye  shall  be  my  people.'  "  *  On 
these  words  of  Jeremiah,  Maimonides  comments  thus : 
"The  meaning  of  his  words  is,  as  if  he  had  said,  'The  pri- 
mary intention  of  every  part  of  the  law  is,  that  ye  should 
know  me,  and  forsake  the  service  of  other  gods  ;  and  the 
precepts  which  enjoin  oblations,  and  command  you  to  wor- 
ship in  my  house,  are  given  to  instruct  and  assist  you  in  this 
duty :  for  the  reason  why  I  have  transferred  this  mode  of 
worship  to  my  own  name  is,  to  efface  the  remembrance  of 
idolatry,  and  establish  the  doctrine  of  my  unity/  "  f 

We  might  quote  several  pages  from  the  Moreh  in  support 
of  this  opinion,  that  the  offerings  were  merely  allowed 
and  not  desired  ;  but  we  will  give  only  a  few  in  addition  to 
what  has  been  said.  "  At  that  time  the  universal  practice, 
and  the  mode  of  worship  in  which  all  were  educated  was, 
that  various  kinds  of  animals  should  be  offered  in  the  tem- 
ples in  which  their  idols  were  placed,  and  before  which 
their  worshippers  were  to  burn  incense  and  prostrate  them- 
selves ;  .  .  .  therefore  God  did  not  ordain  the  abandonment 
or  abolition  of  all  such  worship  ;  for  it  is  the  well-known 
disposition  of  the  human  heart  to  cleave  to  that  to  which  it 
has  been  habituated.  ...  On  these  accounts  the  Creator 
retained  those  modes  of  worship,  but  transferred  the  venera- 
tion from  created  things  and  shadows  to  his  own  name.J 
It  would  be  irrational  to  expect  that  those  who  have  been 
trained  up  in  the  practice  of  those  services  and  modes  of 
worship  should  at  once  renounce  them  all,  and  adopt  a 
contrary  course  of  action.  ...  So  divine  wisdom  ordained 
that  a  kind  of  worship  similar  to  that  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  should  be  continued  amongst  them.  .  .  .  Although 

*  Jer.  vii.  22-23.  t  Moreh  Nebuchim,  Ch.  VII.  ^  Ibid. 


208 

God  sometimes  miraculously  changes  the  nature  of  other 
things,  he  does  not  in  the  same  way  change  the  nature  of 
man."* 

From  these  premises  we  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
ordinances  concerning  sacrifices,  as  prescribed  in  Leviticus, 
were  intended  for  our  ancestors  only,  and  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  second  temple  were  forever  abrogated.  How 
/can  a  reasonable  and  reasoning  man  entertain  the  idea  that 
/  we  should  ever  resort  to  the  practice  of  disgracing  a  place 
of  worship  by  turning  it  into  a  slaughter  house,  or  believe 
that  the  burning  of  animals  be  acceptable  to  God?  In  an 
enlightened  age,  and  among  nations  where  idolatry  is  prac- 
tically abolished,  there  can  be  no  utility  for  such  an  institu- 
tion, and  therefore  to  continue  to  pray  for  a  re-establish- 
ment of  such  rites  is  irrational  and  absurd,  and  the  practice 
maintained  can  be  looked  upon  only  as  a  stubborn  adherence 
to  what  is  antiquated  and  obsolete. 

"  Speak  to  the  children  of  Israel  and  say  to  them,  that  they  make 
themselves  fringes  on  the  extremities  of  their  garments,  throughout  their 
generations,  and  that  they  put  on  the  fringes  of  the  extremities  a  thread 
of  blue." — Numb.  xv.  38. 

This  is  one  of  the  few  commands  where  the  law  gives  us 
a  reason  for  its  observance.  "  That  we  may  look  upon  it, 
and  remember  all  the  commands  of  the  Lord,"  is  added. 
Still  we  are  much  left  in  doubt  as  to  how  the  looking  upon 
the  fringes  would  remind  one  of  God's  commands,  and  in 
entire  ignorance  about  the  way  of  making  them  ;  how  many 
threads,  how  long,  how  to  be  twisted,  of  what  material,  etc. 
As  to  their  effect  in  calling  to  mind  God's  commands,  it 
may  be  said,  simply  :  since  the  fringes  were  an  unnecessary 
appendage  to  the  garments,  their  very  presence  would  put 
us  in  mind  that  they  are  placed  there  for  some  purpose  ; 

*  Ibid. 


209 

that  purpose  namely,  that  we  should  bear  in  mind  that  God 
is  ever  present,  and  sees  us,  and  regards  our  actions,  and 
even  our  thoughts.  So  said  David,  "  I  place  the  Lord 
constantly  before  me  ;  he  is  at  my  right  hand,  I  shall  not 
be  moved."  As  to  the  peculiar  adaptability  of  strings  or 
fringes  for  this  purpose,  it  appears  that  in  ancient  times, 
when  writing  was  very  little  known,  strings  of  various 
colors,  peculiarly  twisted,  and  with  a  certain  number  of 
knots  in  them,  were  used  to  denote  certain  facts.  It  is 
said,  when  South  America  was  discovered,  the  early  set- 
tlers of  Peru  found  among  the  natives  certain  clusters  of 
strings  of  various  colors,  with  knots  in  them,  carefully  kept 
among  the  archives,  which,  upon  inquiry,  they  were  told 
were  historical  records.* 

From  Gen.  xxxviii.  8  also  it  appears  that  it  was  custom- 
ary for  persons  to  carry  with  them  a  number  of  strings, 
though  it  is  not  stated  what  was  their  use  ;  but  they  must 
have  been  of  some  importance,  since  they  were  demanded 
as  a  pledge  and  placed  on  an  equality  with  the  man's  signet 
and  staff.  The  probability  is,  that  Judah,  who  went  to  look 
after  the  interests  of  his  farm  and  the  shearing  of  his  sheep, 
took  those  strings  with  him  to  mark  thereon  certain  num- 
bers or  facts  ;  in  short  they  served  him  for  memoranda.! 

*  Mendelssohn's  comment  in  loco  (by  Aaron  Jaroslaw). 

f  The  word  7SJ"IQ  employed  here  is  the  same  as  used  in  Deut.  xv.  38, 
where  it  is  rendered  a  thread  of  blue,  and  we  understand  it  here  also  to 
mean  a  thread  or  string.  In  Gen.  xxxviii.  some  commentators  of  the 
highest  standing  suppose  it  to  mean  a  loose  cloth,  a  scarf  or  a  girdle  ; 
others  a  string  by  which  the  signet  was  suspended.  But  with  all  respect 
due  to  these  learned  authors,  we  beg  to  differ  with  them,  and  we  find 
our  support  in  vs.  25,  same  chapter,  where  the  identical  articles  are 
mentioned  and  there  D^TIQ  is  used  in  the  plural.  It  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed that  Judah  wore  more  than  one  loose  cloth,  scarf,  or  girdle  ;  and 
as  to  the  word  meaning  "  a  string  by  which  the  signet  was  suspended," 
this  is  also  unlikely,  for  why  should  the  woman  be  particular  in  asking 


210 

The  next  point  for  consideration  is  the  blue  thread,  which 
the  law  requires  to  be  placed  on  the  fringe,  and  it  may  ap- 
pear strange  that  this  particular  is  not  at  all  observed  among 
those  who  still  make  use  of  the  Talet  and  Tsitsitj  surely  the 
law  requires  this  additional  thread,  and  without  it  the 
fringe  is  incomplete.  But,  here  again  tradition  steps  in  as 
usual  to  subvert  the  plain  dictates  of  Scripture.  The  word 
here  used  for  blue  is  rfan.  But  that  does  not  really  mean 
blue;  there  is  no  known  word  in  Hebrew  to  denote  that 
color;  and  /17Dn  is  the  name  of  £  mussel  or  scollop  found 
in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  with  a  blue  shell,  from  which  pur- 
ple was  made  ;  and  the  additional  thread  on  the  fringe  was 
to  be  of  that  color.  But  the  Talmudical  doctors  insist  that 
the  thread  was  to  be  dyed  with  the  blood  of  that  shell-fish, 
and  that  it  was  to  be  found  only  once  every  seventy  years 
formerly,  and  now,  that  is,  for  the  last  two  thousand  years 
perhaps,  it  is  not  to  be  found  at  all,  and  therefore  the  blue 
thread  is  to  be  dispensed  with.  Now  are  we  to  suppose 
that  the  great  quantity  of  blue  thread  used  for  the  curtains 
of  the  tabernacle  and  the  priestly  robes  was  dyed  with  the 
blood  of  a  bivalve  found  only  once  in  seventy  years  ;  and 
moreover  that  a  thread  which  everybody  was  to  wear  on 
his  garment,  "  throughout  their  generations,"  was  to  be 
dyed  only  with  such  blood  ?  Would  God  give  his  people  a 
command  for  daily  observance  which  was  so  difficult,  al- 
most impossible  to  observe  ?  That  the  insect  which  fur- 
nished this  blue,  as  well  as  that  from  which  the  purple  was 
obtained,  and  the  scarlet  insect,  were  very  rare,  is  not  to  be 
disputed.  But  if  the  genuine  blue  for  the  fringe  is  not  now 

such  a  string,  in  itself  of  no  value?  This  would  naturally  go  with  the 
signet.  It  is  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  in  the  first  instance  (vs. 
18)  the  second  yod'\n  ^TIB  has  been  omitted  by  one  of  the  transcribers, 
that  both  should  be  rezd  in  the  plural,  and  mean  stiir.gs  used  for  such 
purpose  as  we  explained. 


211 

to  be  obtained,  another  blue  might  be  substituted,  or  the 
wearing  of  the  fringes  should  be  altogether  discarded,  since 
without  this  the  fringe  is  not  complete. 

"  Thou  shalt  bind  them  as  a  sign  upon  thy  hand,  and  they  shall  be 
as  frontlets  between  thy  eyes."— Deut.  vi.  8. 

It  is  well  known  that  this  text  is  taken  as  a  basis  for  the 
construction  and  wearing  of  the  so-called  Phylacteries  or 
Tephilin.  The  name  Phylacteries  is  erroneously  applied  to 
these  things,  for  that  means  a  charm,  an  amulet,  a  thing  for 
protection,  and  this  was  never  intended  as  the  object  for 
which  they  were  made.  The  name  Tephilin  is  more  appro- 
priate, for  this  is  derived  from  fPfifi,  prayer,  and  applied 
to  these  bandages  intended  to  be  worn  during  prayer-time. 
But  the  manner  of  constructing  the  Tephilin  and  the  duty 
of  wearing  them,  is  altogether  a  rabbinical  fabrication,  void 
of  any  foundation  in  the  Scriptures.  In  the  first  place,  the 
very  name  of  them  is  never  once  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
nor  is  prayer,  of  which  the  tephilin  are  to  be  the  concomit- 
ants, as  their  name  indicates,  ever  prescribed  as  a  duty  in 
the  Mosaic  books.  How,  then,  is  it  to  be  supposed  that 
Moses  instituted  some  particular  rites  to  be  observed  at 
prayer,  of  which  he  never  spoke  ?  But  the  most  serious 
objection  arises  from  the  very  passage  which  the  Talmudists 
look  to  as  the  source  of  their  authority.  Let  us  examine 
the  passage  and  the  relation  it  bears  so  the  context.  "  Bind 
them  as  a  sign  .  .  .  and  they  shall  be  as  frontlets."  Bind 
what?  Them  and  they  are  pronouns,  and  must  refer  to 
something  previously  named.  And  what  is  that  previously 
named?  '*  The  things*  which  I  command  you  this  day." 
Consequently  we  are  to  bind  the  things  commanded,  and 
they  must  be  frontlets.  But  how  is  this  possible  ?  How 

*  We  prefer  things  to  words,  because  things,  not  words,  are  com- 
manded j  and  *p*l  expresses  pne  as  well  a§  the  other, 


212 

can  we  bind  a  command  or  make  it  into  an  ornament  for  the 
forehead  ?  The  rabbis,  seeing  this  difficulty  and  yet  believ- 
ing that  the  verb  binding  is  to  be  understood  here  in  its 
literal  sense,  concluded  that  something  was  really  to  be 
bound  on  the  hand,  and  built  upon  this  their  theory  of  the 
Tephilin.  But  the  verb  to  bind^  wherever  it  occurs  in  con- 
nection with  things  immaterial,  such  as  command,  kindness, 
truth,  is  always  understood  figuratively.  Examples  of  such 
figures  are  numerous.  When  Solomon  said,  "Let  kindness 
and  truth  not  forsake  thee ;  bind  them  about  thy  neck,  write 
them  on  the  tablet  of  thy  heart,"  he  surely  did  not  mean 
that  we  should  actually  bind  or  write  anything.  When 
Isaiah,  speaking  of  Israel's  children,  says  "  Thou  shalt 
clothe  thyself  with  them  all  as  with  an  ornament,  and  bind 
them  on  thee  as  a  bride  does,"  who  does  not  understand 
that  he  speaks  figuratively  ?  The  same  sense  is  to  be  given 
to  the  expression  in  the  preceding  text  :  "  I  have  graven 
thee  upon  the  palms  of  my  hand ;  "  all  of  which  denote  a 
cherishing,  fostering,  holding  dear.  And  so  is  our  text  to 
be  understood.  The  things  which  I  command  you  shall  be 
in  your  heart,  teach  them  to  your  children,  speak  constantly 
of  them,  look  upon  them  as  upon  a  precious  thing,  such  as 
a  gem  worn  on  the  hand,  and  as  a  diadem  on  the  forehead, 
so  shall  they  be  deeply  and  constantly  impressed  on  your 
mind. 

The  objections  against  the  rabbinical  interpretation  crowd 
themselves  so  fast  upon  each  other  and  are  all  so  weighty 
that  we  hardly  know  of  which  to  take  hold  first.  The 
command  of  teaching  them  to  our  children  evidently  refers 
to  the  same  things  as  are  to  be  bound  on  the  hand  and  head 
and  written  on  the  posts.  But  if  it  be  true  that  only  those 
few  portions  the  rabbis  have  selected  are  to  be  bound 
and  written,  then  we  are  likewise  to  teach  our  children 
those  portions  only.  Again,  the  portions  selected  for  the 


2T3 

Tephilin  and  Mezuzah,  or  door-post,  are  not  the  same.  Or, 
if  the  writing  and  binding  on  refer  to  all  the  command- 
ments, then  we  should  have  to  place  a  complete  scroll  of 
the  law,  or  at  least,  a  full  list  of  the  Mosaic  commands,  on 
our  hand  and  head.  Nor  are  the  Tephilin  ever  placed  on 
the  hand,  but  on  the  arm.  In  Ex.  xiii.  9,  occurs  a  passage 
very  similar  to  the  one  we  are  discussing:  "  It  shall  be  as  a 
sign  on  thy  hand,  and  a  remembrance  between  thy  eyes." 
This  refers  to  the  exodus  from  Egypt;  but  no  writing  or 
binding  are  mentioned  in  connection  with  it,  yet  the  rabbis 
apply  it  likewise  to  the  Tephilin.  More  might  be  said  on 
the  subject  in  refutation  of  the  adopted  theory,  but  we  think 
sufficient  proof  has  been  advanced  to  show  clearly  that  the 
text  in  question  is  to  be  understood  metaphorically,  and 
that  the  making  and  wearing  of  Tephilin  has  no  foundation 
whatever  in  the  Mosaic  code. 

"  Thou  shalt  write  them  on  the  door-posts  of  thy  house,  and  on  thy 
gates." — Deut.  vi.  9. 

The  explanation  of  this  command  has  been  partly  anti- 
cipated in  that  of  the  foregoing,  but  the  meaning  of  it  is  not 
quite  so  easily  determined.  Some  commentators  under- 
stand this  to  be  also  figurative,  like  the  words  of  Solomon 
quoted  above,  as,  when  speaking  of  kindness  and  truth,  he 
says,  "  Bind  them  on  thy  neck,  write  them  on  the  tablets  of 
thy  heart,"  so  here  it  would  imply,  Let  my  commands  be  ever 
present  to  your  mind,  like  a  conspicuous  thing  placed  on  a 
post  for  remembrance.  This  interpretation  is  quoted  by 
Aben  Ezra,  though  not  adopted  by  him.  We  said  in  the 
preceding  article  that  the  binding  on  of  commands  is  im- 
practicable, and,  therefore,  cannot  be  taken  literally;  but 
writing  on  a  post,  or  affixing  to  it  a  schedule,  is  feasible ; 
therefore,  some  commentators  understand  it  to  imply  that 
something  was  really  to  be  written  on  the  door-posts  after 


214 

the  manner  of  "  the  ancient  Egyptians  who  had  their  lin- 
tels and  imposts  of  doors  and  gates  inscribed  with  senten- 
ces indicative  of  favorable  omen,  and  this  is  still  the  case, 
for  in  Egypt  and  other  Mohammedan  countries — in  Cairo, 
for  instance — the  front-doors  of  houses  are  painted  red, 
white,  and  green,  bearing  conspicuously  inscribed  upon 
them  such  sentences  from  the  Koran  as  God  is  the  Creator  ; 
God  is  one  and  Mohammed  is  His  prophet*  And  the  Chinese 
likewise  suspend  on  their  door-posts  slips  of  paper  and 
pieces  of  cloth  with  certain  inscriptions  on  them.  But  in 
the  examples  cited,  something  legible  and  intelligible  is 
always  placed  in  view  of  those  who  enter  and  go  out,  and 
the  object  of  impressing  an  idea  on  the  mind  may  be  ex- 
pected thereby  to  be  accomplished.  But  the  schedules 
placed  at  our  doors  are  not  understood,  cannot  be  read 
even  by  the  great  majority  of  men,  and  are  not  visible  to 
any  one.  If  they  were  intended  to  act  as  a  charm  or  a  tal- 
isman, this  would  make  no  difference,  as  long  as  the  writing 
were  there,  which  needed  to  be  legible  only  to  the  spirits 
for  or  against  whom  it  was  intended.  By  many  non-Jewish 
writers  this  has  indeed  been  supposed  to  be  the  object  of 
the  Mezuzah  as  well  as  the  Tephilin — hence  they  called  the 
latter  Phylacteries — and  even  some  Jewish  authors  enter- 
tained this  view.  But  this  idea  must  be  entirely  repudiated, 
for  the  Mosaic  Law  opposes  all  that  has  any  affinity  to  sor- 
cery or  spell.  Since,  then,  the  Tephilin  and  Mezuzah  are 
acknowledged  to  be  used  as  mementos,  they  ought  to  be 
made  so  as  to  exhibit  in  legible  characters  the  facts  and 
ideas  they  are  intended  to  call  to  mind.  To  what  purpose 
can  be  this  solicitude  in  having  the  scriptural  portions  they 
contain  written  with  utmost  correctness,  that  not  one  letter 
in  them  shall  have  the  least  defect,  nor  that  any  one  shall 

*  Jamieson,  Commentaries  on  the  Scriptures. 


215 

touch  upon  another;  that  the  vellum  must  be  prepared  just 
exactly  so,  that  even  the  ink  must  be  prepared  in  a  peculiar 
manner,  and  all  that  for  something  which  is  never  to  meet 
the  eye  ?  Many  and  many  a  person  puts  on  his  Tephilin 
every  morning,  and  continues  the  practice  to  the  last  days 
of  his  life,  and  dies  in  ignorance  of  what  were  their  con- 
tents. And  it  is  this  ignorance  which  has  led  the  multitude 
to  look  upon  them  as  a  mere  charm ;  and  hence  many  per- 
sons, void  of  all  religious  ideas,  would  not  sleep  a  single 
night  in  a  house  not  provided  with  a  Mezuzah,  not  because 
they  would  miss  this  token  of  remembrance  of  God's  com- 
mand, but  for  fear  lest  some  misfortune  befall  them. 

The  sum  total  of  our  argument  is,  that  the  text,  taken  in 
a  figurative  sense,  may  be  still  applicable  to  us,  indicating 
that  we  should  be  ever  mindful  of  God's  commands,  espe- 
cially that  we  should  duly  consider  their  import  and  make 
it  our  study  to  penetrate  into  their  meaning  ;  but  that  the 
literal  interpretation  of  it — if  it  ever  was  intended  to  be  so 
understood — cannot  be  binding  on  us,  because  we  Jews  of 
the  present  day  do  not  require  texts  or  phrases  on  our  door- 
posts; having  ample  opportunity  to  be  reminded  of  our 
duties  towards  God  and  man  by  reading  good  books,  by 
attending  at  our  places  of  worship,  and  by  seeking  inter- 
course with  good  and  enlightened  men;  the  conclusive 
proof  of  which  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  strict  observers 
of  the  Tsitsit,  Tephilin  and  Mezuzah  are,  as  a  rule,  no  bet- 
ter men  than  those  who  have  discarded  those  observances. 

'  'An  oath  of  the  Lord  shall  be  between  the  two  of  them." — Ex.  xxii.  10. 

From  the  early  records  of  the  Bible  it  appears  that  oaths 
existed  among  mankind  ever  since  they  began  to  live  in  so- 
cial communion  ;  but  that  prior  to  the  establishment  of  law 
or  government,  the  fulfilment  of  engagements  between  man 


2l6 

and  man  depended  entirely  upon  their  own  veracity,  with 
no  responsibility  to  any  authority. 

As  the  sentiment  of  a  superior  Being  who  is  cognizant 
of  our  doings  is  coeval  with  the  existence  of  man,  an  appeal 
to  the  presence  of  that  Being  was  made  in  all  cases  of  sol- 
emn affirmation,  but  the  manner  of  invoking  that  presence 
not  being  determined  by  law  or  common  agreement,  was 
left,  it  would  seem,  to  the  choice  of  those  whom  it  concerned; 
hence  we  find  different  forms  of  swearing  at  different  pe- 
riods of  time.  The  earliest  form  of  an  oath  on  record — 
and  singular  enough  the  same  which  is  in  vogue  at  the 
present  day — is  that  of  raising  the  hand  up  to  heaven,  in 
token  of  an  appeal  to  God  as  witness  to  the  fact  to  be 
affirmed.  Thus  Abraham  said  to  the  king  of  Sodom,  "  I 
have  lifted  up  my  hand  to  the  Lord,  the  most  high  God, 
possessor  of  heaven  and  earth,  that  I  will  not  take,  etc." 
(Gen.  xiv.  22).  This  mode  of  swearing  seems  to  have  been 
used  when  the  obligation  to  be  established  was  not  a  mu- 
tual one,  but  when  one  wished  to  take  upon  himself  a  vol- 
untary vow  in  which  either  he  alone  was  concerned,  or  that 
a  promise  was  made  in  favor  of  some  one  else.  Another 
manner  of  swearing  was  that  the  one  who  took  the  oath 
placed  his  hand  under  the  thigh  of  him  to  whom  he  bound 
himself  as  to  the  performance  of  the  deed  promised ;  the 
latter,  it  is  to  be  supposed,  being  at  the  time  in  a  sitting 
posture.  This  was  done  only  when  a  promise  was  made 
in  favor  of  another ;  the  person  taking  the  oath,  by  placing 
his  hand  under  the  thigh  of  the  one  who  administered  it, 
declaring  thereby  that  he  placed  himself  at  the  disposition  of 
the  latter,  and  bound  himself  to  obey  his  orders,  or  comply 
with  his  wishes.  Examples  of  this  we  find  in  the  instance  of 
Abraham  swearing  his  servant  to  go  and  seek  a  wife  for  his 
son  (Gen.  xxiv.  3),  and  Jacob  adjuring  Joseph  to  remove 
his  bones  to  Canaan  (Gen.  xlvii.  29). 


217 

Still  another  mode  of  swearing  was  the  custom  of  pass- 
ing between  the  pieces  of  an  animal  or  animals  cut  in 
halves,  which  was  used  in  case  of  parties  assuming  a  recip- 
rocal obligation.  This  act  seemed  to  imply  that  the  con- 
tracting parties  were  thus  united  and  jointly  bound  to  their 
engagement.  This  appears  from  the  covenant  which  God 
made  with  Abraham,  Gen.  xv.  10,  and  it  is  also  alluded  to 
in  Jer.  xxxiv.  19.  Similar  to  this — that  is,  similar  in  its 
purpose  of  establishing  a  covenant — was  the  erection  of  a 
monument,  or  a  pile  of  stones  in  commemoration  of  the  agree- 
ment made,  such  as  took  place  between  Jacob  and  Laban 
on  their  parting  (Gen.  xxxi.  45),  and  such  as  the  tribes  of 
Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  of  Menasseh  erected  on  the  border 
of  Jordan,  though  this  was  done  by  one  party,  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  other,  and  afterwards  agreed  to;  and  this 
was  done  even  in  the  case  of  one  taking  upon  himself  an 
obligation  towards  the  Lord,  as  Jacob  did  at  Beth-El  (Gen. 
xxviii.  18).  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  none 
of  those  ceremonies  described  constituted  in  themselves  the 
act  of  taking  the  oath,  but  merely  accompanied  and  pre- 
ceded it;  nor  was  it  always  necessary  that  any  of  the  above 
ceremonies  should  take  place,  for  we  find  also  instances  of 
swearing  by  the  life  of  the  king  (Gen.  xlii.  15-16).  This 
custom,  as  well  as  the  others  described,  was  in  vogue 
among  various  Oriental  nations,  and  the  last-named  is  still 
in  use  among  the  Persians,  and  rests  upon  the  idea  that  the 
monarch  represents,  not  only  the  power  of  the  State,  but 
also  that  of  God.  Of  oaths  confirming  what  had  passed,  we 
find  no  instances  in  the  time  of  the  patriarchs,  though  these 
may  also  have  obtained.  In  the  Mosaic  laws,  however, 
the  affirmation  by  oath  of  things  passed  is  clearly  pre- 
scribed, as  in  the  text  heading  this  article,  and  the  oath 
was  to  be  taken  in  the  name  of  Jehovah.  u  The  Lord  thy 
God  shalt  thou  fear,  Him  shalt  thou  serve,  and  by  His 


2l8 

name  shalt  them  swear  "  (Deut.  vi.  13).  The  prohibition 
of  false  swearing  is  strictly  enjoined  in  the  Decalogue  and 
elsewhere,  but  perjury  was  not  punishable  by  the  civil  law. 
God  himself  would  punish  the  profanation  of  his  name. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  likewise  considered  perjury  not  a 
civil,  but  a  religious  offence.  Though  the  Jews  were  re- 
quired to  swear  by  the  name  of  God,  the  ceremony  accom- 
panying it  is  not  prescribed ;  but  that  the  raising  of  the 
hand  was  the  most  prevalent,  appears  from  the  frequent  oc- 
currence of  the  expression,  "I  lifted  up  my  hand,"  when 
God  would  affirm  what  he  had  promised ;  and  in  the  case 
of  a  suspected  wife,  we  find  that  the  oath  was  recited  by  the 
priest  and  answered  by  Amen,  amen.  So,  also,  was  the 
pronouncing  of  a  curse  upon  the  head  of  him  who  should 
violate  his  pledge  of  conforming  to  the  laws  of  God 
(Deut.  xxvii.  15-26). 

Having  in  the  first  part  of  this  article  considered  volun- 
tary vows  as  they  existed  prior  to  the  proclamation  of  the 
law,  we  now  come  to  consider  them  from  the  standpoint  of 
Mosaic  legislation.  There  is  nothing  in  the  Mosaic  code  to 
show  that  vows  were  desired  or  recommended,  but  once 
taken,  they  were  held  sacred  and  forever  binding,  even 
when  made  under  an  erroneous  impression,  or  as  the  conse- 
quence of  a  false  representation ;  no  absolution  appears 
to  have  been  allowable  under  any  consideration,  except  a 
daughter  under  the  control  of  her  father,  or  a  wife  re- 
strained in  her  actions  by  her  husband.  When  the  Israelites 
had  entered  into  a  covenant  with  the  Gibeonites,  although 
they  discovered  afterwards  that  they  had  been  imposed 
upon,  they  thought  themselves  still  bound  to  their  oath,  and 
kept  it.  When  Jephthah  made  a  rash  vow  which  afterwards 
proved  to  involve  the  life  of  his  only  child,  he  sought  no 
absolution,  but  executed  his  promise  even  in  violation  of 
his  parental  feelings.  The  writer  of  Ecclesiastes  (ch.  v.  2-6) 


219 

says,  "  Be  not  rash  with  thy  mouth,  and  let  not  thy  heart  be 
hasty  to  utter  anything  before  God;  .  .  .  when  thou  vowest 
a  vow  to  God,  defer  not  to  pay  it,  ...  neither  say  to  the 
messenger  (angel)  that  it  was  an  error."  It  is  not  necessary 
to  say  any  more  to  show  what  great  weight  the  Hebrews 
attached  to  a  vow  once  pronounced.  Yet  the  Talmudical 
doctors  have  taken  the  most  unpardonable  liberty  in  absolv- 
ing persons  of  their  most  solemn  engagements,  even  on  the 
slightest  pretences.  It  must  appear  incredible  to  those  not 
acquainted  with  Talmudical  lore,  when  learning  to  what  ex- 
tent they  carried  this  license.  On  the  subject  of  vows  they 
undertake  to  clear  a  man  of  his  conscience  as  if  it  had  never 
been  there.  One  may  make  ever  so  many  vows,  pledges, 
engagements,  and  break  them  on  any  pretence,  "  even  if  he 
vowed  by  the  God  of  Israel,"  they  say;  and  if  he  have  no 
pretence  to  plead,  the  rabbi  who  absolves  him  may  suggest 
one  to  him,  to  which  he  says,  Yes,  and  he  is  free.  One  may 
say,  "The  vow  I  am  about  to  make  shall  not  be  valid,"  or, 
"  All  or  any  vows  I  may  make  until  such  a  time  shall  be 
void,"  and  this  relieves  him  from  all  engagement.  They 
went  even  so  far  as  to  say,  when  one  has  made  a  vow,  it  is 
best  to  get  absolved  at  once  and  be  bound  no  more.  The 
ordinary  way  of  obtaining  absolution  was  that  one  go  before 
a  rabbi,  or  before  three  laymen,  and,  after  stating  his  case, 
say,  "  I  regret,"  to  which  he  received  the  answer,  "  Thou  art 
absolved."  Later,  however,  it  was  thought  best  to  em- 
power the  person  himself  with  the  right  to  nullify  his  vows, 
either  in  advance  or  after  they  were  made,  for  which  pur- 
pose the  known  formula  Kol  Nidre  was  established,  and 
which  was  later  "smuggled  into  the  synagogue  service." 
That  the  recital  of  this  formula  should  still  be  continued 
among  the  Jews  of  the  present  time,  and  the  day  which  is 
considered  the  most  holy  in  the  Jewish  calendar  should  be 
inaugurated  by  a  public  act  of  perfidy  on  the  part  of  an 


220 

entire  congregation,  is  a  matter  both  of  regret  and  of  shame. 
What  on  earth  can  be  said  in  defense  of  a  practice  by  which 
men  allow  themselves  to  break  every  honorable  engagement 
entered  into;  to  swear  to  their  neighbors  to  do  or  not  to  do 
a  certain  thing  and  then  go  into  the  synagogue  and  say, 
"  All  oaths,  bonds,  pledges — and  whatever  synonyms  they 
can  find  to  express  an  engagement — shall  be  all  null  and 
void,  for  it  was  all  a  mistake  "?  Foftunately,  it  is  but  an 
empty  form,  for  very  few  men  are  so  depraved  as  to  be  in 
earnest  when  they  say  so,  or  when  the  minister  says  so  for 
them,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  "  Father  will  forgive 
them,  for  they  know  not  what  they  do."  But  in  the  leaders 
of  congregations  who  know  what  they  do  and  what  they 
say ;  those  petrified  men  *  who  will  forever  adhere  with 
stubborn  tenacity  to  the  established  customs  of  their  fathers, 
whether  they  be  right  or  whether  they  be  wrong;  in  them 
the  fault  is  unpardonable.  A  great  deal  has  been  written 
against  this  unwarrantable  practice  by  abler  pens  than  the 
one  which  traces  these  lines,  and  the  result  hitherto  pro- 
duced has  not  been  equal  to  the  amount  of  learning  and 
energy  employed  for  checking  the  evil.  The  writer  of  this 
article,  therefore,  cannot  hope  that  his  efforts  will  at  once 
effect  a  change  among  those  who  are  determined  never  to 

*  We  borrow  this  expression  from  a  French  author  who  says : 
"  Lamartine,  dans  sa  'Critique  de  1'histoire  des  Girondins,'  releve 
quelques  erreurs  d'appreciation  et  justifie  ses  changements  de  croyances 
en  faisant  la  theorie,  non  pas  de  la  versatilite,  mais  de  I'amelioration 
et  du  progres  de  1'intelligence.  II  s'indigne  contre  ces  hommes  petri- 
fies qui  ne  se  dedisent  jamais  et  '  veulent  mourir,  comme  disait  M.  de 
Chateaubriand,  non  pas  conformes  &  la  verite,  mais  conformes  a  eux 
memes.'  En  resume,  la  vie  est  une  Ie9on  que  la  temps  est  charge  de 
donner  a  I'homme,  en  lui  faisant  epeler  syllable  par  syllable  les  evene- 
ments.  Celui  qui  pretend  avoir  tout  vu  le  premier  jour  est  un  homme 
qui  n'avait  ni  raison  de  naitre,  ni  raison  de  mourir,  car  il  n'avait  rien  a 
apprendre  en  naissant." — Le  petit  Journal. 


221 

change,  but  it  may  open  the  eyes  of  some  who  are  willing  to 
see  and  appreciate  the  truth.  And  while  writing  an  explana- 
tion on  some  of  the  Mosaic  Laws,  he  deems  it  his  duty  to 
show  also  the  force  of  the  text.  "  If  a  man  vow  a  vow  to 
the  Lord,  or  swear  an  oath  to  bind  his  soul  with  a  bond,  he 
shall  not  break  his  word,  he  shall  do  according  to  all  that 
proceedeth  from  his  mouth." — Numb.  xxx.  3. 

"  Sanctify  to  me  all  the  first-born  ;  the  first  offspring  of  every  female 
among  the  children  of  Israel,  of  man  and  of  beast,  is  mine." — Ex.  xiii.  3. 

The  distinctions  and  privileges  conferred  upon  the  first- 
born were  an  institution  peculiar  to  the  Hebrews,  and  not 
in  vogue  among  other  nations.    It  existed  among  them  even 
prior  to  the  time  of  Moses.    Thus  we  find  the  birth-right  of 
Esau  acknowledged  in  the  family;  when  Zerah  was  born, 
the  nurse  was  particular  in   noting  his  first  appearance  in 
the  world;  and  so  was  the  primogeniture  of  Reuben  consid- 
ered an  inheritable  right.     We  must  remember  that  the  He- 
brew people,  like  their  neighbors,  in  early  ages  consisted  of 
independent  families,  whose  affairs  were  directed  by  their 
chief  or  patriarch  ;  and  this  prerogative  descended  on  the 
eldest  son,  who,  from   his  birth,  was  distinguished  as  his 
father's  successor,  and  privileged  in  the  distribution  of  the 
estate.     "  The  right  of  primogeniture  in  males,"  says  Black- 
stone,  "  seems  to  have  only  obtained  among  the  Jews,  in  whose 
constitution  the  eldest  son  had  a  double  portion  of  the  in- 
heritance, in  the  same  manner  as  with  us,  by  the  laws  of  King 
Henry  the  first,  the  eldest  son  had  the  capital  fee  or  principal 
feud  of  his  father's  possessions."   Before  the  time  of  Moses, 
the  father  had  the  right  to  dispose  of  this  privilege  and  give 
it  to  another  of  his  sons,  as  the   instance  of  Jacob,  who 
transferred  it  from  Reuben  to  Joseph,  the  son  of  his  most 
beloved  Rachel,  shows  ;  and  it  appears  that  the  eldest  son 

himself,  when  arrived  at  manhood,  could  dispose  of  it,  as  is 
10 


222 


seen  in  the  case  of  Esau  and  Jacob.  This  power  vested  in 
the  father  to  deprive  his  eldest  son  of  the  right  of  inherit- 
ance and  give  it  to  another,  naturally  caused  much  jealousy, 
especially  in  a  family  where  polygamy  took  place;  therefore, 
Moses  instituted  that  none  but  the  first  son,  if  he  were  also 
the  mother's  first  child,  should  enjoy  the  right  of  primogen- 
iture, and  be  entitled  to  inherit  a  double  portion  of  his 
father's  estate.  As  this  law  interfered  with  the  sentiments 
of  parents  who,  notwithstanding  its  establishment,  were 
likely  to  disregard  it  and  still  give  the  preference  to  a  favor- 
ite son,  a  sacredness  was  attached  to  it,  and  the  first-born 
declared  holy  to  the  Lord,  so  as  to  put  a  more  powerful  re- 
straint upon  its  transgression,  and  the  distinction  extended 
even  to  brutes.  Before  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  chosen  for 
the  Temple  service,  the  first-born  were  honored  with  that 
preference.  "The  first-born  of  man  and  beast  shall  be 
consecrated  to  God,"  says  the  text,  that  is,  the  former  were 
to  be  redeemed  with  five  shekels  of  silver,  which  were  given 
to  the  priest;  the  latter,  namely  the  first  issue  of  animals  fit 
for  sacrifice,  were  to  be  brought  to  the  Temple,  and  the  blood 
and  fat  offered  on  the  altar,  while  the  carcass  was  a  gift  for 
the  priest.  Why  the  ass  was  made  an  exception  to  this  rule, 
and  required  to  be  redeemed  with  a  lamb,  or  have  its  neck 
broken,  we  do  not  know;  we  conjecture  that,  as  this  was, 
besides  the  cattle,  almost  the  only  domestic  animal  in  use 
(the  horse  being  very  rare,  and  the  swine  and  dog  held  in 
aversion),  the  priest  was  to  have  his  share  of  it,  and,  being 
an  unclean  animal,  was  to  be  redeemed.  It  is  well  known 
that,  in  the  East,  females  always  were,  and  are  yet,  looked 
upon  as  degraded  beings,  therefore,  if  the  first-born  was  a 
female,  the  law  of  primogeniture  did  not  apply  at  all. 
Daughters  were  excluded  from  all  participation  in  the  in- 
heritance, except  when  there  was  no  son,  and,  in  that  case, 
they  were  bound  to  marry  none  but  one  of  their  near  rela- 


223 

tives,  so  that  the  property  might  not  be  taken  out  of  the 
family.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  other  nations, 
all  inheritances,  whether  consisting  of  land  or  movables, 
were  equally  divided,  in  some  cases,  among  all  the  male 
children,  and,  in  others,  among  all  the  children  alike  ;  but 
since  the  introduction  of  the  feudal  system,  most  European 
nations  have,  with  some  modifications,  adopted  the  Jewish 
law  of  primogeniture  with  regard  to  the  possession  of  estates 
and  titles  of  honor.  This  ancient  law,  of  course,  has  lost 
its  binding  force  on  us,  as  all  temple-service  and  priestly 
gifts  have  ceased  to  exist ;  still,  some  Jews  adhere  to  its 
observance  by  selecting  some  one  who  bears  the  name  of 
Cohen,  and  presenting  him  with  five  pieces  of  silver  coin 
as  the  ransom  of  their  first-born  son;  and  some  go  even  so 
far,  when  they  happen  to  have  cattle,  to  separate  the  first- 
born and  let  it  graze  during  its  whole  life-time  until  it  die  of 
itself  ;  not  shearing  its  wool,  if  it  be  a  sheep,  nor  applying 
the  animal  to  any  use  whatsoever. 

"  If  brothers  dwell  together,  and  one  of  them  die  and  have  no  son, 
then  shall  the  wife  of  the  deceased  not  be  married  abroad  to  a  stranger; 
her  husband's  brother  shall  come  to  her  and  take  her  for  himself  for  a 
wife,  and  so  perform  the  duty  of  a  husband's  brother  towards  her.  And 
the  first-born  son  which  she  may  bear,  shall  succeed  to  the  name  of  the 
deceased  brother,  that  the  name  of  the  latter  be  not  blotted  out  of 
Israel,"  and  sequel. — Deut.  xxv.  5-10. 

This  is  what  is  called  the  Levirate  Law.  The  term  Levir- 
atc,  is  from  the  old  Latin  word  Levir,  signifying  a  husband's 
brother.  It  was  an  ancient  custom  among  different  nations 
of  Asia  that,  if  a  man  left  a  childless  widow,  and  also  one 
or  more  brothers,  the  eldest  of  the  brothers  should  marry 
the  widow.  In  Genesis  xxxviii.,  we  find  an  instance  of  it 
recorded  in  the  case  of  the  widow  Tamar,  which  shows  at 
the  same  time  that,  in  case  the  second  brother  died,  like- 
wise without  issue,  the  same  obligation  devolved  upon  the 


224 

third  ;  and  we  are  informed  that,  "  the  Mongols,  who  in- 
habit quite  a  different  region  of  Asia,  and  give  themselves 
very  little  concern  about  their  genealogies  and  descendants, 
have  a  law  which,  in  like  manner,  enjoins  the  marriage  of  a 
brother's  widow.  From  the  history  of  Ruth  and  Boaz  it 
appears  further  that,  among  the  Hebrews,  not  only  the  bro- 
thers, but  the  nearest  of  kin  were  expected  to  marry  the 
widow  who  was  left  without  a  son,  so  as  to  keep  up  the 
name  of  their  kinsman.  This  ancient  custom  was  retained 
and  established  as  a  law  in  the  Mosaic  code.  It  is  some- 
what analogous  to  the  law  of  primogeniture  treated  above, 
inasmuch  as  both  rested  upon  the  idea  of  perpetuating  the 
name  and  estate  of  the  family.  To  die  childless,  especially 
without  leaving  any  male  issue,  was  considered  a  disgrace 
and  a  curse  ;  it  was  especially  pronounced  against  certain 
crimes  mentioned  in  Lev.  xx.  20-21.  The  object  of  the 
Levirate  law,  then,  was  to  perpetuate  the  name  of  the  de- 
ceased, as  the  first  son  proceeding  from  the  second  marriage 
was  to  inherit  the  estate  of  the  departed  uncle,  and  thus 
keep  up  his  name.  Should,  however,  the  brother  decline 
to  marry  the  widow,  then  she  was  to  go  before  the  judges  and 
complain  of  his  unwillingness.  He  was  then  summoned  to 
appear  before  the  magistrates,  and,  if  persisting  in  his  re- 
fusal, was  to  submit  to  a  public  insult,  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  times.  This  insult  was,  that  the  widow  take  off 
the  shoe  from  his  foot,  spit  out  before  him,  and  say,  "  So 
shall  be  done  to  the  man  who  refuses  to  keep  up  the  name 
of  his  brother."  This  ceremony  is  called  in  Hebrew  Cha- 
litsa,  which  means  Loosening. 

The  Levir,  it  is  seen,  was  not  compelled  by  law  to  marry 
the  widow,  it  was  optional  with  him.  If  he  did  marry  her, 
the  first  son  she  would  give  him  was  to  bear  the  name  of 
the  deceased  man,  and,  as  this  son  would  be  also  his  own 
natural  heir,  the  estates  of  the  two  brothers  would  be  blended 


225 

and  the  whole  go  by  the  name  of  the  late  brother,  while  the 
name  of  the  living  one  would  be  forgotten.  This  was  actu- 
ally a  sacrifice  of  the  man's  own  and  his  family  interest  for 
the  sake  of  perpetuating  the  memory  of  his  relative.  Hence 
it  would  frequently  happen  that  brothers  or  other  near  rela- 
tives refused  an  alliance  with  the  relicts  of  their  kinsmen; 
and  upon  this  ground  the  nameless  person  who,  in  the  reg- 
ular order  of  succession,  came  in  first  to  take  Ruth  for  his 
wife,  declined  the  marriage,  and  said,  "  I  cannot  perform  the 
duty  of  a  kinsman,  lest  I  destroy  the  name  of  my  own  in- 
heritance." We  learn  also  from  Ruth  iv.  7,  that  in  the 
transaction  of  some  important  business,  such  as  the  transfer 
of  an  estate,  "  a  man  take  off  his  shoe  and  give  it  to  his 
neighbor,  and  this  was  a  testimony  in  Israel."  It  signified 
that  he  yielded  up  his  title,  his  hold,  his  footing,  we  may 
say,  to  that  which  he  might  justly  claim  as  his  own.  It  is 
yet  a  common  saying  among  the  Dutch,  when  a  son  succeeds 
his  father  in  any  office  or  position,  that  "  he  enters,  or  treads 
into  his  father's  shoes."  So  we  say  in  English,  "  waiting  for 
a  man's  shoes,"  and  the  French  say,  "  etre  sur  un  grand 
pied  dans  le  monde,"  which  originated  at  a  time  when  a 
man's  rank  was  known  by  his  shoe,*  all  of  which  shows  that 
anciently  as  well  as  in  modern  times  the  shoe  was  used  fig- 
uratively to  express  a  man's  standing  in  the  world.  Now, 
it  appears  to  me  that  the  loosening  or  pulling  off  of  the  shoe 
by  the  widow,  as  prescribed  in  Deut.  xxv.  9,  was  to  indicate 


*  This  custom  of  wearing  immensely  large  shoes  arose  in  the  eleventh 
century,  under  Philip  I.  They  were  made  with  long  points  turned  up 
at  the  toes,  and  extended  heels  assuming  sometimes  the  shape  of  a  bird 
or  the  tale  of  a  scorpion.  Those  of  a  prince  measured  two  feet  and  a 
half,  while  those  of  plain  citizens  were  allowed  to  be  only  twelve  inches. 
The  fashion  was  invented  by  the  earl  of  Anjou  ;  was  immediately 
adopted  in  France  ;  and  the  Normans  brought  it  over  to  England.  See 
Markham's  Hist,  of  France,  p.  IOO. 


226 

that  she  took  disdainfully  from  her  brother-in-law  that 
which  she  thought  him  unworthy  to  hold;  she  wrested  from 
from  him  his  claim  to  her  person  and  his  foothold  to  her 
husband's  property,  and,  as  a  mark  of  contempt  for  his 
want  of  affection  and  generosity,  spit  out  before  him,  upon 
which  the  bond  which  held  them  together  was  entirely  dis- 
solved, and  she  was  free  to  marry  any  other,  which  she  was 
not  allowed  to  do  until  this  ceremony  was  performed.  This 
ceremony  of  Chalitsa,  or  loosening  of  the  shoe,  and  the 
foundation  upon  which  it  rests,  it  will  be  clearly  perceived, 
has  its  origin  in  the  idea  which  anciently  prevailed  of  pre- 
serving the  identity  of  families,  and  preventing  the  transfer 
or  absolute  sale  of  land  from  one  tribe  to  another.  Need  it 
be  said  that  such  distinctions  are  not  and  cannot  be  pre- 
served among  Jews  of  the  present  day,  when  we  know  that 
the  identity  of  families  was  lost  already  in  the  later  days  of 
the  first  Temple  ?*  The  ceremony  in  question,  therefore, 
has  long  since  become  an  antiquated  statute  ;  notwithstand- 
ing which  some  of  our  people  still  observe  it  with  utmost 
rigor  and  with  the  usual  rabbinical  appendages. 

"  If,  in  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God  gives  thee  to  possess  it,  a 
slain  person  be  found  lying  in  the  field,  and  it  is  not  known  who  has 
slain  him,  then  shall  thy  elders  and  thy  judges  go  and  measure  (the  dis- 
tances of)  the  cities  around  the  slain  person, "  and  sequel. — Deut.  xxi.  1-9. 

By  this  precept  it  was  ordained  that,  if  the  body  of  a  mur- 
dered person  was  found  somewhere  in  an  open  place,  at  a 
distance  from  the  population,  and  after  diligent  search  the 
murderer  could  not  be  found,  the  elders  of  the  town  nearest 
to  the  spot  where  the  corpse  lay,  should  take  a  heifer  that 
had  never  been  worked,  lead  it  to  a  valley  which  was  not 
cultivated,  and  there  strike  off  the  head  of  the  heifer.  The 
elders  were  then  to  wash  their  hands  on  the  spot  and  declare 

*  See  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  J.  u.  s.  S.,  p.  30. 


227 

before  God  that  they  were  ignorant  of  the  crime,  that  is, 
that  they  had  done  all  they  could  to  discover  the  criminal, 
and  they  prayed  God  that  the  innocent  might  not  be  made 
to  suffer  for  the  guilty. 

We  have  no  explanation  of  our  own  to  offer  for  this  pecu- 
liar ordinance,  but  give  here  the  commentary  of  Maimonides 
on  the  subject:  "The  utility  of  the  precept  respecting  the 
beheading  of  the  heifer,"  says  he,  "is  also  evident  ;  for  the 
city  bringing  the  heifer  is  that  which  is  nearest  to  the  body 
of  the  man  who  had  been  murdered ;  and  it  most  frequently 
happens  that  the  murderer  is  from  that  place.  Then  the 
elders  of  the  city  call  God  to  witness  that  they  have  ne- 
glected nothing  that  was  necessary  for  the  security  and 
guarding  of  the  ways,  and  had  diligently  examined  and 
searched  all  travellers,  saying,  as  our  rabbis  expressed  it, 
'  This  man  was  not  killed  through  our  negligence  or  forget- 
fulness  of  any  of  our  common  or  public  regulations;  nor 
do  we  know  who  killed  him.'  Now  by  this  investigation 
into  the  deed,  by  the  going  forth  and  protestation  of  the 
elders,  and  by  taking  the  heifer  and  striking  off  its  head, 
a  great  deal  of  conversation  took  place  about  the  affair,  and 
gave  publicity  to  it,  by  which  means  the  murderer  was  prob- 
ably found  directly,  or  was  discovered  by  some  one  who 
had  been  accessory  to  the  murder,  or  had  overheard  some- 
thing respecting  it  ;  or  it  might  become  known  by  certain 
signs  and  indications  that  such  a  one  was  the  murderer. 
But  if  any  man  or  woman  rose  and  said  such  a  one  com- 
mitted the  deed,  the  heifer  was  not  beheaded;  and,  as  it 
was  well  known  that,  if  any  one  knew  the  author  and  con- 
cealed the  fact,  calling  upon  God  as  witness  and  as  an 
avenger  that  he  knew  him  not,  such  would  be  the  greatest 
folly  and  sin,  it  was  rendered  highly  probable  that  if  any 
one  knew  the  murderer  he  would  be  detected,  and  the  de- 
tection would  be  important;  for  if  the  house  of  judgment 


228 

did  not  put  him  to  death,  the  king  had  the  power  to  order 
his  execution  on  evidence  being  given  against  him,  and  if 
the  king  did  not  cause  him  to  suffer,  the  avenger  of  blood 
might  do  it  by  lying  in  wait  for  him.  It  must,  therefore, 
be  acknowledged  that  the  beheading  of  the  heifer  was  of 
use  in  the  disclosure  and  discovery  of  murder.  This  was 
also  promoted  by  the  circumstance  that  the  place  where  the 
heifer  was  beheaded  might  never  again  be  ploughed  or 
sowed,  which  was  done  that  the  owner  of  the  land  might 
use  every  effort  and  neglect  nothing  to  detect  and  appre- 
hend the  murderer,  that  the  heifer  might  not  be  slain  and 
the  land  be  polluted  forever." 

"  If  a  man  have  a  refractory  and  rebellious  son,  who  will  not  hearken 
to  the  voice  of  his  father  and  mother,  and  they  chasten  him  and  he  will 
not  listen  to  them;  then  shall  his  father  and  mother  lay  hold  of  him  and 
bring  him  out  to  the  elders  of  the  city  and  to  the  gate  of  his  place  "... 
see  sequel. — Deut.  xxi.  18-21. 

We  are  naturally  struck  with  the  apparent  seventy  of  the 
law  which  ordains  the  stoning  to  death  of  what  we  might 
call  a  bad  boy.  But  we  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  the 
age  of  the  son  is  not  mentioned.  The  law  cannot  well  be 
supposed  to  refer  to  a  mere  boy  or  child  to  whom  the  ex- 
pressions rebellious,  a  glutton,  and  a  drunkard  cannot  well 
be  applied;  nor  can  it  be  applicable  to  one  grown  up  to 
manhood  and  beyond  the  control  of  his  parents,  since  it 
says,  4<  his  father  and  mother  shall  take  hold  of  him  and 
bring  him  out  to  the  elders  of  his  city."  It  is,  therefore, 
reasonable  to  think  that  it  refers  to  a  lad,  say  between  fifteen 
and  twenty  years  of  age,  and  that  it  means,  that  if  a  boy 
or  young  man  were  found  so  incorrigible  that  no  admonition 
or  remonstrance  of  his  parents  could  affect  him ;  that  he, 
notwithstanding  the  corrections  of  his  parents,  would  in- 
dulge in  drunkenness  and  profligacy,  they  were  to  bring 
him  before  the  elders  or  judges  of  the  town  and  declare 


229 

that  their  son  was  incorrigible  and  rebellious,  a  glutton  and 
a  drunkard,  and  he  was  then  stoned  to  death  ;  for  it  was 
thought  better  to  check  the  evil  in  the  beginning,  and  even 
root  it  out  by  killing  so  stubborn  a  sinner  than  to  let  him 
grow  up  a  worthless  man,  a  bad  example,  and  a  corrupter 
of  society.  And,  indeed,  our  experience  shows  even  now, 
in  many  cases,  where  the  disposition  is  so  determinately  in- 
clined to  evil  that  no  amount  of  correction  or  good  example 
can  ever  be  expected  to  reform  the  criminal,  that  it  would 
have  been  better  for  the  public  welfare  had  the  person  been 
early  removed  from  society  than  to  let  him  continue  his 
wicked  pursuit  during  a  long  life  ;  and  the  case  proposed 
in  the  text  could  be  only  such  an  extreme  one,  when  the 
very  parents  were  to  be  the  accusers.  And,  although  the 
punishment  of  death,  and  that  a  public  execution,  must 
appear  even  then  too  severe,  it  was  necessary  in  those  early 
ages  when  no  milder  forms  of  correction  were  established, 
and  when  the  people  were  not  sufficiently  civilized  to  be 
governed  by  gentle  means ;  and  it  is  therefore  that  we  find 
in  many  instances  the  penalty  of  death  prescribed  even  for 
apparently  small  offences. 

"  If  thou  meet  on  the  road,  either  on  a  tree  or  on  the  ground,  a  bird's 
nest,  in  which  are  young  birds  or  eggs,  and  the  dam  sitting  upon  them, 
thou  shalt  not  take  the  dam  with  the  young  ;  thou  shalt  send  away  the 
dam,  and  then  mayest  take  the  young." — Deut.  xxii.  6-7. 

There  are  many  of  the  Mosaic  commands  which  are  much 
involved  in  obscurity,  and  we  are  left  to  conjecture  the  ob- 
ject and  frequently  also  the  meaning  of  the  command.  The 
precept  regarding  a  bird's  nest  is  one  of  those  for  which  it 
is  difficult  to  assign  a  reason.  Michaelis  thinks  that  it  was 
forbidden  to  take  the  hen  and  young  in  order  to  prevent  the 
destruction  of  birds  which  were  useful  in  destroying  injuri- 
ous insects;  but  then  it  would  Have  been  better  to  order  the 


230 

nest  to  be  left  altogether  untouched.  A  more  reasonable 
cause  for  the  precept  is  assigned  by  Maimonides,  who  thinks 
the  object  was  to  prevent  cruelty  to  animals,  as  it  would 
pain  the  old  bird  to  see  her  young  ones  carried  away.  If, 
therefore,  the  finder  wished  to  make  use  of  the  eggs  or  of 
the  young  birds,  he  should  despatch  the  dam,  so  as  to  give 
her  as  little  grief  as  possible.  On  the  same  ground  it  was 
forbidden  to  harness  an  ox  and  an  ass  together  to  the  plough, 
as  they  are  generally  of  unequal  strength  and  this  would 
overexert  the  weaker  one.  For  this  reason  also  it  was  for- 
bidden to  muzzle  an  ox  while  threshing,  and  other  similar 
commands  of  kindness  to  man  and  beast  are  based  on  the 
ground  of  humanity  and  beneficence. 

"  Speak  to  the  children  of  Israel  and  say  to  them  :  When  ye  come 
into  the  land  which  I  give  you,  then  shall  the  land  rest,  a  sabbath  to 
the  Lord.  Six  years  shalt  thou  sow  thy  field,  and  prune  thy  vineyard, 
and  gather  the  produce  thereof,  but  the  seventh  year  shall  be  one  of 
strict  rest  to  the  land  .  .  .  And  thou  shalt  number  seven  sabbatical 
years,  seven  times  seven  years.  .  .  .  and  ye  shall  sanctify  the  fiftieth 
year,  and  proclaim  liberty  throughout  the  land  to  all  its  inhabitants," 
and  sequel. — Lev.  xxv. 

The  whole  of  this  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  institution  of 
the  Sabbatical  year  and  the  Jubilee,  and  the  various  ordi- 
nances connected  therewith. 

As  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  was  instituted  as  a  Sab- 
bath-day, so  every  seventh  year  was  appointed  a  year  of 
rest  for  man,  and  beast,  and  land.  Hebrew  slaves  were  set 
free;  all  debts  and  claims  among  Israelites  were  cancelled; 
and  the  whole  of  the  book  of  the  law  was  read  publicly  be- 
fore the  multitude.  This  institution  was  of  great  benefit  to 
the  people :  they  were  taught  thereby  the  principle  of  free- 
dom and  equality  among  men ;  all  persons,  like  children  of 
one  family,  had  free  and  indiscriminate  use  of  what  the  land 
spontaneously  produced ;  and  the  land  itself,  by  being  left 


231 

fallow  for  a  year,  was  thereby  much  improved.  It  served 
also — as  Calmet  observes — to  inspire  the  people  with  senti- 
ments of  humanity,  by  making  it  their  duty  to  give  rest, 
proper  and  sufficient  nourishment  to  the  poor,  the  slave  and 
the  stranger,  and  even  to  the  cattle ;  and  to  accustom  the 
people  to  submit  to  and  depend  on  divine  Providence  which 
would  by  an  extraordinary  provision,  support  them  even 
while  they  were  not  occupied  in  agriculture.  It  served 
further  to  detach  their  affections  from  earthly  things,  and 
make  them  disinterested  and  heavenly-minded,  and  to  show 
them  God's  dominion  over  the  country,  that  He,  not  they, 
was  Lord  of  the  soil ;  and  further  to  recall  to  mind  the  work 
of  creation  by  the  week  of  years  as  well  as  by  the  -weekly 
Sabbath. 

The  Jubilee  was  celebrated  every  fiftieth  year,  and  was 
characterized  by  the  same  observances  as  the  ordinary  or 
Sabbatical  years,  and  was  moreover  distinguished  (ist)  by 
a  general  sounding  of  trumpets  on  the  day  of  atonement, 
"to  proclaim  liberty  throughout  the  land  to  all  its  inhabi- 
tants;" (2d)  by  a  release  of  all  slaves,  even  those  who  had 
voluntarily  relinquished  their  freedom,  at  the  end  of  six 
years,  and  had  their  ears  pierced  in  token  of  their  continual 
servitude;  and  (3d)  by  the  returning  of  all  landed  property 
to  its  primitive  owners,  or  to  his  inheritors  in  the  family 
and  tribe  to  which  it  originally  belonged;  so  that  no  family 
was  allowed  to  accumulate  too  great  riches,  nor  the  poor 
and  unfortunate  be  forever  deprived  of  their  patrimonial 
inheritance.  An  attentive  consideration  of  the  subject  will 
show  the  utility  of  this  law,  and  the  wisdom  and  benevo- 
lecne  which  prompted  its  enactment.  Palestine  was  origi- 
nally divided  by  lot  amongst  the  tribes  and  families  of 
Israel,  and  the  inheritance  of  each  family  was,  by  the  pre- 
vious directions  of  the  law  of  Moses,  made  inalienable,  thus 
establishing  a  commonwealth  on  truly  democratic  principles 


232 

without  incurring  the  disadvantages  and  dangers  of  com- 
munism. Doubts  have  been  entertained  by  biblical  critics  as 
to  whether  the  land  of  Canaan  was  so  fruitful  as  to  produce 
corn  and  other  necessaries  of  life  in  sufficient  abundance 
for  three  years,  since  the  sixth  year  was  to  produce  a  supply 
for  its  own  consumption,  for  the  seventh  in  which  there 
was  no  sowing  or  reaping,  and  for  the  eighth  of  which  a 
course  of  seasons  was  requisite  to  bring  the  crops  to  perfec- 
tion. But  as  it  is  explicitly  stated  (Lev.  xxv.  21):  "I  will 
command  my  blessing  upon  you  in  the  sixth  year,  and  it 
shall  bring  forth  fruit  for  three  years,"  it  is  needless  here  to 
argue  upon  the  possibility  of  such  a  thing.  Independent, 
however,  of  the  miraculous  divine  intervention  necessarily 
connected  with  this  law,  and  without  which  it  must  have 
been  impracticable,  we  cannot  but  admire  the  excellence 
of  an  institution  which,  while  establishing  periodical  public 
festivals  for  the  recreation  and  enjoyment  of  the  people, 
had  at  the  same  time  the  tendency  to  impress  them  with 
such  sublime  ideas  as  equality,  liberty,  benevolence,  and 
dependence  on  a  superior  Being.  We  find  that  in  later 
ages  the  Greeks  established  their  Olympiads,  the  Romans 
their  Lustra,  and  the  Christians  their  Indictions,  which 
were  probably  derived  from  the  Jewish  Sabbatical  year  and 
Jubilee.  But  how  far  superior  were  the  latter  to  the  former 
which  were  devoted  only  to  debasing  performances  and 
tended  to  demoralize  and  corrupt  those  who  partook  in 
them!  Nor  need  it  be  supposed  that  the  whole  of  the  Sab- 
batical year  was  given  to  festivity  or  revelry,  for  although 
agricultural  labor  was  interdicted,  they  could  fish,  hunt, 
take  care  of  their  bees  and  flocks,  repair  their  buildings  and 
furniture,  manufacture  cloths  of  wool,  linen,  and  of  the  hair 
of  goats  and  camels,  and  carry  on  commerce.  Yet,  favorable 
and  excellent  as  this  institution  may  appear,  and  suitable 
also  to  the  taste  of  the  people  as  it  would  seem,  it  was  much 


233 

neglected  even  in  the  most  flourishing  time  of  the  Jewish 
monarchy,  so  that  in  the  five  centuries  succeeding  the  reign 
of  Solomon  not  two  Sabbatical  years  were  properly  ob- 
served, though  after  the  Babylonian  captivity  they  were 
regularly  and  properly  celebrated. 

"  This  shall  be  the  law  of  the  leper."— Lev.  xiv.  2. 

The  laws  concerning  the  leprous  and  the  disease  itself 
are  described  in  the  i3th  and  i4th  chapters  of  Leviticus. 
This  disease  is,  thanks  be  to  Heaven,  hardly  known  among 
us  even  by  name;  and  as  the  ordinances  concerning  the 
same  can  have  no  applicability  to  us,  a  discussion  of  them 
in  this  book  might  appear  superfluous.  Still,  as  none  of  the 
Mosaic  precepts,  even  those  that  have  become  obsolete,  can 
be  looked  upon  as  entirely  void  of  interest  to  us;  and  as 
the  chapters  just  named  are  among  the  weekly  portions  read 
to  us  from  the  pulpit  for  our  instruction  or  edification,  it  is 
proper  that  we  should  be  enlightened  on  these  scriptural 
lessons  we  are  to  listen  to,  especially  when  we  hear  of  lep- 
rosy in  clothes  and  in  houses,  which  must  appear  quite 
unintelligible.  The  law  gives  but  a  superficial  description 
of  the  appearance  of  the  disease ;  to  obtain  a  better  idea  of 
it  we  must  consult  the  opinions  of  physicians  who  have 
made  this  malady  a  subject  of  special  study. 

That  kind  of  leprosy  which  is  spoken  of  by  Moses  ap- 
pears to  be  what  is  called  the  White  Leprosy,  and  is  nearly 
thus  described  by  Mr.  Robinson,  a  medical  practitioner  of 
India:  " One  or  two  circumscribed  patches  appear  upon 
the  skin,  neither  raised  nor  depressed,  shining  and  wrin- 
kled, the  furrows  not  coinciding  with  the  lines  of  the  skin. 
That  part  of  the  skin  affected  with  the  disease  is  so  entirely 
insensible  that  you  may  with  a  hot  iron  burn  to  the  muscle 
before  the  patient  feels  any  pain.  These  patches  spread 
slowly  until  the  skin  of  the  whole  of  the  legs,  arms,  and 


234 

gradually  often  the  whole  body  becomes  alike  devoid  of 
sense ;  wherever  it  is  so  affected,  there  is  no  perspiration, 
no  itching,  no  pain,  and  very  seldom  any  swelling.  Until 
this  singular  apathy  has  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the 
skin,  it  may  rather  be  considered  a  blemish  than  a  disease  ; 
nevertheless,  it  is  most  important  to  mark  well  these  appear- 
ances, for  they  are  the  invariable  commencement  of  the  most 
gigantic  and  incurable  of  diseases.  Next,  the  pulse  be- 
comes very  slow,  the  toes  and  fingers  numbed  as  with  frost, 
glazed  and  rather  swelled  and  nearly  inflexible.  The  mind 
is  at  this  time  sluggish  and  slow  in  apprehension,  and  the 
patient  appears  always  half  asleep.  The  soles  of  the  feet 
and  the  palms  of  the  hand  then  crack  into  fissures,  dry  and 
hard  as  the  parched  soil  of  the  country  ;  the  extremities  of 
the  toes  and  fingers  under  the  nails  are  incrusted,  and  the 
nails  gradually  lifted  up.  Still,  there  is  little  or  no  pain. 
The  legs  and  forearms  swell ;  ulcers  now  appear  on  the  in- 
side of  the  fingers  and  toes  ;  a  discharge  of  reddish  matter 
comes  on  ;  the  muscles  become  flabby  and  powerless  ;  and 
the  joint  being  penetrated  as  with  an  auger,  the  extremity 
droops,  and  at  length  falls  a  victim  to  this  cruel,  tardy,  but 
certain  poison.  Thus  are  the  limbs  deprived,  one  by  one, 
of  their  extremities,  till  at  last  they  become  altogether  use- 
less. Even  now  death  comes  not  to  the  relief  of,  nor  is  it 
desired  by,  the  patient,  who,  dying  by  inches,  and  a  specta- 
cle of  horror  to  all  besides,  still  cherishes  fondly  the  spark 
of  life  remaining,  and  eats  voraciously  all  he  can  procure. 
He  will  often  crawl  about  with  little  but  his  trunk  remain- 
ing, until  old  age  comes  on,  and  at  last  he  is  carried  off  by 
diarrhoea  or  dysentery,  which  the  enfeebled  constitution  has 
no  stamina  to  resist."  Among  the  properties  of  this  terrible 
malady  are  (i)  that  it  is  hereditary,  (2)  that  it  is  infectious, 
and  (3)  that  it  is  incurable;  at  least,  no  means  of  cure  have 
hitherto  been  discovered.  The  disease  is  peculiar  to  Asia 


235 

and  to  hot  climates  generally.  It  was  much  more  prevalent 
in  olden  times  than  it  is  now,  but  it  is  still  a  common  dis- 
ease throughout  all  Syria,  and  in  Egypt  it  is  said  to  be  more 
frequent  and  virulent.  Cutaneous  diseases  generally  are 
ascribed  by  medical  men  to  want  of  cleanliness,  unwholesome 
food,  dampness  in  dwellings,  and  want  of  fresh  air,  to  all  of 
which  poor  persons  are  often  exposed ;  and  the  Israelites 
in  Egypt  undoubtedly  suffered  much  from  these  causes. 
They  were  poor,  degraded  slaves,  lived  sometimes  in  marshy 
parts  of  the  country  along  the  Nile ;  their  families  increased 
rapidly  in  their  crowded  dwellings  ;  and  these  things  all 
tend  to  promote  scorbutic  diseases.  Besides,  the  frequent 
use  of  fish  which  they  obtained  in  Egypt  for  nothing,* 
tends  to  spread  the  infection.  Therefore,  on  the  entering 
of  Israel  into  Palestine,  the  preventives  against  the  spread 
of  leprosy  were  a  necessary  and  wise  institution. 

The  infection  of  houses  and  clothes,  spoken  of  in  Leviti- 
cus, is  called  leprosy  merely  by  analogy.  In  Bern,  for  in- 
stance, says  Michaelis,  they  speak  of  the  cancer  of  buildings, 
which  is  with  equal  propriety  a  Swiss,  as  the  leprosy  of  build- 
ings is  a  Hebrew  expression.  The  house-leprosy,  then, 
appears  to  be  a  kind  of  distemper  which  affects  the  walls 
of  houses  much  exposed  to  dampness  and  foul  air,  and 
which  produces  an  efflorescence  we  commonly  but  incor- 
rectly call  saltpetre.  If  this  corrosion  is  allowed  to  spread 
further  and  further,  it  may  cause  the  destruction  of  the 
whole  wall,  and  ultimately  of  the  entire  building.  Things 
that  are  placed  near  such  a  wall  are  spoiled,  and  persons 
sleeping  close  to  it  may  be  injured  in  their  health.  The 
consideration  of  these  circumstances,  says  the  preceding 
author,  will  render  the  Mosaic  ordinances  on  this  subject 
easily  intelligible.  Their  object  was  to  check  the  evil  in 

*  Numb.  xi.  5. 


236 

the  very  bud;  to  extirpate  it  while  it  was  yet  extirpatible,  by 
making  every  one,  from  the  loss  to  which  it  would  subject 
him,  careful  to  prevent  his  house  becoming  affected  with 
leprosy. 

The  leprosy  in  clothes  is  believed  to  be  occasioned  by  a 
species  of  animalcule,  such  as  breed  in  wool  shorn  from  a 
sheep  that  died  of  disease,  or  such  as  are  the  cause  of  the 
itch,  or  it  may  be  the  infection  which  is  called  mildew  and 
dry-rot.  Michaelis  states  that,  according  to  the  information 
he  received  from  an  eminent  woolen  manufacturer,  the  wool 
of  sheep  which  die  by  disease,  and  which  is  technically 
called  dead  wool,  is  apt  to  breed  vermin,  especially  when 
worn  close  to  the  body  and  warmed  by  it ;  he,  therefore, 
conceived  that  it  was  an  additional  proof  of  the  consum- 
mate legislative  policy  of  the  Mosaic  institutes  to  bring 
into  discredit  and  disuse  stuffs  already  become  threadbare 
and  fretted,  and  particularly  in  climates  which  must  have 
been  so  favorable  to  the  rapid  multiplication  of  vermin. 

"  Ye  shall  not  add  to  the  thing  which  I  command  you,  neither  shall 
ye  diminish  aught  from  it,  but  observe  the  commands  of  the  Lord  your 
God  which  I  command  you." — Deut.  iv.  2. 

From  the  manner  in  which  we  treated  the  preceding  sub- 
jects, it  will  be  sufficiently  evident  that  we  entirely  reject 
all  rabbinical  authority  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic 
commands,  and  we  would  here  say  a  few  words  in  vindica- 
tion of  our  position.  We  reject  both  rabbinical  authority 
and  their  interpretation,  because  as  to  the  first,  the  authority 
exercised  by  the  rabbis  is  self-assumed,  usurped,  not  con- 
ferred by  any  power  we  are  bound  to  recognize,  but  tacitly 
submitted  to  by  the  multitude,  and  as  to  the  second,  theo- 
logical doctors  of  the  present  age  are  by  their  researches, 
and  the  general  progress  of  science,  better  qualified  to  de- 
termine the  meaning  of  ancient  laws  and  customs ;  they 


237 

are  better  able  to  divest  themselves  of  that  strong  partiality 
which  fettered  the  minds  of  the  talmudical  doctors  and 
their  successors.  It  is  further  evident  to  every  impartial 
critic  that  the  rabbis  have  in  very  many  instances  perverted 
the  plain,  even  the  most  unequivocal  sense  of  scriptural 
precepts,  have  said  many  things  that  are  false,  and  things 
that  are  foolish  ;  and  the  system  of  interpretation  adopted 
by  them  is  often  contrary  to  the  rules  of  logic  and  to  sound 
reasoning.  But  not  only  have  the  rabbis  misinterpreted 
Scripture,  they  have  set  their  authority  above  that  of  the 
divine  law,  and  have,  in  open  violation  of  the  text  above 
quoted,  added  to  and  diminished  from  the  Mosaic  commands. 
We  will  give  only  a  few  instances  in  addition  to  what  has 
been  said,  fully  to  illustrate  and  confirm  our  statement. 
The  observing  of  two  holidays  instead  of  one  is  an  addition 
to  the  Mosaic  Law,  and  in  violation  of  it.  When  Israel 
dwelt  in  Palestine,  when  they  had  no  calendar,  and  the  be- 
ginning of  each  month  could  be  determined  only  by  the 
appearance  of  the  first  phases  of  the  moon,*  and  those 
living  at  a  great  distance  could  not  receive  timely  informa- 
as  to  which  day  had  been  fixed  upon  by  the  Sanhedrin  as 
the  first  of  the  month,  those  people  were  justified  in  observ- 
ing two  days,  so  as  to  make  sure  of  keeping  the  right  day; 
but  since  the  Jewish  calendar  has  been  accurately  computed 
for  all  future  time,  the  necessity  of  keeping  more  than  one 
day  has  been  obviated,  and  to  prescribe  the  observance  of 
an  additional  festival  is  contrary  to  the  dictates  of  the  Mo- 
saic code. 

Another  instance  where  the  rabbis  assumed  authority 
above  that  of  the  written  Law,  is  in  the  use  of  the  Lulab 

*  The  Turks  even  now  reckon  their  year  by  lunar  months,  and  watch 
the  first  appearance  of  the  moon  for  the  celebration  of  their  great  fast 
of  Ramadan,  which  they  observe  much  in  the  same  way  as  we  keep  the 
Day  of  Atonement. 


238 

and  Shophar.  We  are  commanded  in  the  Scriptures  to 
make  use  on  the  first  day  of  the  Tabernacles  of  the  four 
species  of  plants  mentioned  in  Leviticus  xxiii.  40.  There 
is  no  exception  made  in  the  text  to  dispense  with  the  use  of 
them  in  case  this  first  day  of  the  feast  should  happen  on  the 
Sabbath.  Yet  the  rabbis  have  taken  upon  themselves  to 
ordain  that  no  use  should  be  made  of  these  emblems  on  the 
Saturday.  And  why  not  ?  By  a  rabbinical  ordinance,  which 
has  no  foundation  in  the  Scriptures,  it  is  forbidden  to  carry 
any  article  on  the  Sabbath  beyond  the  city-limits,  or  from 
without  into  it.  For  fear  now  that  any  one  who  may  have 
neglected  to  provide  himself  with  the  four  specimens  alluded 
to,  might  go  outside  of  the  city  to  fetch  them,  they  forbade 
the  use  of  them  on  the  Sabbath  altogether;  thus  practically 
verifying  what  they  said,  "  The  rabbis  have  fortified  or  en- 
forced the  observance  of  their  own  institutions  more  than 
than  those  of  the  Law."  The  same  is  the  case  with  the 
blowing  of  the  Shophar,  which  is  ordained  without  excep- 
tion to  take  place  on  the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month ; 
and  the  rabbis  again  contradicted  the  order  in  case  that  day 
should  happen  on  a  Saturday,  for  the  reason  just  mentioned, 
that  it  might  not  be  at  hand,  and  would  have  to  be  brought 
from  without  the  city-limits.  On  the  other  hand,  they  re- 
quired us  to  make  use  of  the  four  specimens  during  six 
additional  days  of  the  Tabernacles;  and  to  blow  the  Shophar 
on  the  second  day  of  the  seventh  month,  neither  of  which 
is  Scriptural,  and  while  performing  the  ceremonies  to  say, 
"  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  !  who  has  commanded  us  to  do 
so."  This  shows  clearly  that  the  rabbis  both  added  to  and 
diminished  from  the  word  of  God,  though  we  are  repeatedly 
warned  against  doing  so. 

Besides  the  instances  now  given  of  Shophar  and  Lulab, 
which  are  Scriptural  ordinances,  and  extended  by  the  rabbis 
upon  their  own  authority  to  a  time  not  prescribed  in  the 


239 

Law,  there  are  other  observances  of  which  not  a  word  nor 
the  slightest  intimation  appears  in  the  Mosaic  books,  such 
as  the  washing  of  hands  in  the  morning  and  before 
meals,  the  lighting  of  the  Sabbath-lamp,  and  the  Hannucah 
lamp,  the  reading  of  the  Hallel,  and  several  others,  with 
which  they  have  connected  a  blessing  in  which  we  are  to 
say  that  God  commanded  us  to  do  these  things,  which, 
however,  is  quite  contrary  to  truth. 

But  the  rabbis  have  gone  still  further  in  the  assumption 
of  their  authority,  solemnly  declaring  that  he  who  denies 
the  truth  of  their  interpretation  of  Scripture  and  the  oral 
law  generally,  is  equal  to  one  who  denies  the  truth  of  divine 
revelation,  and  shall  be  excluded  from  enjoying  the  rewards 
and  blessings  of  eternal  life.  Thus  even  the  enlightened 
Maimonides,  in  his  work  Yad  Hachasacah,  declares,  " These 
are  they  who  have  no  part  in  the  world  to  come,  but  are  cut 
off  and  perish,  and  are  condemned  on  account  of  the  great- 
ness of  their  wickedness  and  sin  forever  and  ever — the 
heretics,  and  the  deniers  of  the  law,"  and  goes  on  to  spe- 
cify among  the  latter,  "he  who  denies  the  interpretation  of 
the  law,  that  is,  the  oral  law."*  This  is  indeed  the  highest 
degree  of  arrogance  which  any  religious  expounders  ever 
dared  to  assume,  to  say,  if  you  do  not  accept  our  interpreta- 
tions, you  are  everlastingly  condemned. 

The  idea  that  the  rabbinical  decisions  rest  upon  divine 
authority,  in  consequence  of  a  chain  of  traditions  brought 
down  to  us  from  the  time  of  Moses,  is  long  since  exploded 
and  a  hundred  times  disproved.  During  the  whole  period 
of  the  first  Temple,  there  were  no  rabbis  nor  traditions. 
The  system  originated  about  the  time  of  the  Maccabees. 
To  establish  the  claim  of  divine  authority,  or  even  of  divine 

*  We  are  strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  the  author  held  different 
views  when,  later,  he  wrote  the  Moreh  Nebuchim. 


240 

sanction,  for  the  Talmud  and  its  collateral  productions, 
two  things  would  be  essentially  necessary.  In  the  first 
place,  a  perfect  unanimity  of  opinion  among  the  rabbis, 
both  with  regard  to  the  exposition  of  the  written  laws,  and 
on  the  oral  laws  said  to  have  descended  traditionally  from 
the  divine  Author  ;  and  second,  a  perfect  agreement  be- 
tween these  and  the  plain  words  of  Scripture  would  be  re- 
quired. But  instead  of  agreement,  there  is  great  diversity 
of  opinion  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Law,  and  some  of 
the  oral  laws  are  in  downright  contradiction  with  the  writ- 
ten, as  we  have  shown. 

We  are  quite  willing  to  give  the  rabbis  all  the  credit  due 
to  their  honesty  of  purpose,  and  readily  admit  that  their 
motives  were  pure,  and  that  they  labored  with  the  best  in- 
tention of  upholding  the  sacredness  of  our  religion,  and 
render  it  invulnerable  by  even  the  smallest  violation.  But 
zeal  will  often  rise  to  enthusiasm  and  to  fanaticism,  and 
our  rabbinical  teachers  have  exhibited  these  qualities  in  a 
very  high  degree.  While  admitting  their  honesty  of  pur- 
pose, it  must  at  the  same  time  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
sphere  of  their  thoughts  and  views  was  very  narrowly  lim- 
ited. The  state  of  almost  total  exclusion  in  which  they 
lived,  and  preferred  to  live,  rather  than  mix  with  those  who 
entertained  different  views,  and  the  cruel  oppression  and 
hatred  which  they  suffered  on  the  part  of  those  under 
whose  dominion  they  lived,  contributed  largely  to  those 
false  opinions  being  rooted  deeper  and  deeper  into  their 
minds,  until  they  became  settled  maxims  and  principles  not 
to  be  doubted.  This  is  about  the  best  apology  we  can  find 
for  men  of  intelligence,  of  learning,  and  of  good  motives, 
establishing  rules  and  principles  which  must  appear  incon- 
sistent and  repugnant  to  reason  and  common  sense,  and 
overloading  us  with  a  multitude  of  observances  preposterous, 
puerile,  and  often  ridiculous. 

or  THE 

DIVERSITY 


241 

As  to  ourselves,  Jews  of  the  present  age,  the  words  of 
the  law,  as  expounded  by  our  modern  teachers,  are  all- 
sufficient  for  our  moral  and  religious  edification ;  we  need 
no  "  hedges  to  the  law,"  hedges,  too,  so  closely  twisted  and 
so  thorny  as  to  place  the  law  itself  beyond  one's  reach. 
Our  great  aim  is  to  preserve  the  Scriptures  in  their  purity, 
to  penetrate  into  the  spirit  of  our  law  and  our  religion,  and 
though  remaining  a  distinct  tribe  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  to  proceed  on  the  path  of  progression  with  the  rest 
of  the  world,  to  advance  with  their  advancement,  and  im- 
prove with  their  improvement. 


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